The Development of New Media in Egypt and its Effects on Local Realities

Study presented at the Conference on New Media and Change in the Arab World

Prepared by: Dr. Hiba Ameen Shaheen

Professor in the Media Department

Faculty of Arts Ain-Sahm University

February 2002

The world is witness to a great revolution in the field of communications and transfer of information. Major political, literary and scientific events are occurring in full view of the peoples of the world. They are at the fingertips of individuals the moment they happen. The world is now transformed into a small electronic village that has no borders or barriers.

Television broadcasts are crowded with a massive number of satellite channels with varying programs, broadcasting hours and viewing public. There have been some debates and discussions among media specialists regarding this. Some of them oppose this cultural invasion fearing for their cultural identity, while others approve of this two-way cultural openness to the world.

In response to the current changes in the domain of communication, tens of Arab satellite television channels have been launched. Some of these are controlled by governments, while others are managed by private companies. They broadcast either from their respective countries or from abroad. For example, “Arab Radio and Television” (ART) broadcasts from Rome and Middle East Television (MBC) broadcasts from London. These channels have their own viewing public who prefers them to foreign channels.

The communication revolution has consolidated individuals’ right to know, learn, compare, analyze and choose what suits them. No authority can now prevent individuals from obtaining information.

Massive technological development is the main characteristic of the communicative environment of this modern age. Satellites’ capabilities of broadcasting and transmission are constantly being improved. Cable distribution systems are being relied upon more and more in the world, enabling subscriber to receive hundreds of television stations. Furthermore, there has been a development in the use of fiber optics that can provide subscribers with more than one hundred channels at a time and in a very high audiovisual quality (1).

Moreover, there have been substantial developments in satellite television broadcasting through medium power satellites and direct broadcasting satellites. These gave viewers the opportunity to watch hundreds of international satellite channels through dishes and without the interference of state censorship. The use of space telecommunication technology in the field of television had several results, foremost among which were the large increase in the number of satellite channels, the appearance of specialized channels which are directed to a certain segment of viewers, and the increase in the numbers of international news channels like CNN, as well as regional news channels such as Euronews. In addition, the role of private capital investment in television became more prominent in many countries including the Arab states (ART and MBC).

Finally news has become a type of merchandise put up in a free market that is controlled by elements of competition. High rates of news viewing of a channel mean an increase in advertisement and profit, in addition to the wider spread of the channel’s media message public-wise. (2)

Accompanying this technological revolution in telecommunication was the launching of tens of Arab satellite channels since the 1990’s. Most of them concentrate on the entertaining aspects of media. Public exposure to them is constantly increasing due to the decrease in the costs of dishes (3).

The number of Arab satellite channels is expected to increase furthermore in the future, following the launching of the Egyptian satellites Nilesat One and Two and the Arab satellite Arabsat 3A and the use of television batches that combine Arab and foreign satellite channels. In addition, there is a trend nowadays to establish Arab specialized satellite channels, like the Egyptian specialized satellite channels, the Dubai channels, or the MBC project to launch a number of channels specializing in news, sports, movies, education and family issues.

What is noticeable, as regards Arab satellite channels, is that they address their viewers, whether in the Arab world or outside it, in Arabic. The only exception to this is Nile TV International. This means that their primary target is the Arab viewer wherever he/she may be. (4)

Following is background information on the development of radio and television in Egypt, and a discussion of modern telecommunication means represented by the Egyptian satellite channels and the spread of Internet in Egypt.

General Background Information on the Development of Radio and Television in Egypt

I. The Development of Radio Transmission in Egypt

Radio was introduced in Egypt in the 1920’s. At the beginning, radio stations were private and government owned. On 29 May 1934, the Ministry of Telecommunications decided to shut down the private stations to make room for official ones that started transmitting on 31 May 1934 and were managed by the International Marcony Company. In 1947, the Egyptian government terminated the British control of Egyptian Radio. A leading role was played by the radio in informing the citizens of the eruption of the 1952 revolution. Since 1981 and until the present, radio has been operating by the radio network system. (5)

Egyptian radio comprises of several radio networks. These are: (6)

General program Network: established on 31^st May 1934 and transmits 24 hours a day.
The Holy Quran Network: established on 29^th March 1964, transmits 24 hours a day.
The Middle East Network: established on 3^rd May 1964, transmits 24 hours a day.
Sports and Youth Network: established on 6^th October 1975, transmits 24 hours a day.
Cultural network: includes the following three radio services:

· The European program: established on 31 May 1934, transmits 19.11 hours a day.

· The Cultural Program: established on 1^st May 1957, transmits 8 hours a day.

· The Musical Program: established on 1^st March 1968, transmits 24 hours a day.

Sawt Al-Arab (Voice of the Arabs) Network: It comprises of three radio services:

Sawt Al-Arab Radio (Voice of the Arabs): established 24 July 1953, transmits 24 hours a day.
Palestine Radio: established on 29^th October 1960, transmits 7 hours a day.
Wadi Al-Neel Radio (Nile Valley): established in 1^st January 1984, transmits 4 hours a day.

Local networks: constituted of 11 services:

Alexandria: established on 26^th July 1953, transmits 19.14 hours a day.
Greater Cairo: established 1^st January 1981, transmits 21.10 hours a day.
Mid-Delta: established on 22^nd July 1982, transmits 18.10 hours a day.
Northern Sa’eed: established 13^th May 1983, transmits 16.17 hours a day.
Northern Sinai: established 25^th April 1984, transmits 18.18 hours a day.
Southern Sinai: established 23^rd April 1985, transmits 15.22 hours a day.
Canal Radio: established 25^th October 1988, transmits 19.2 hours a day.
Educational Service: established 1^st January 1990, transmits 10.12 hours a day.
Al-Wadi Al-jadeed (New Valley): established 1st June 1990, transmits 15.8 hours a day.
Matrooh Service: established in 31^st May 1991, transmits 16.22 hours a day.
Southern Sa’eed: established on 31^st May, transmits 13.28 hours a day.

8. Directed Frequencies Network: includes 45 radio services in 35 languages and is directed to 5 main regions:

Africa: established in 1959, transmits 13.45 hours a day.
Asia, Australia and the Middle East: established in 1953, transmits 19.45 hours a day.
Europe: service started in 1956, transmits 7.45 hours a day
The Americas: service started in 1955, transmits 10.45 hours a day.
Israel: service started in 1954, transmits 7 hours a day.

Specialized Radios Network: Transmit on normal waves in addition to the Egyptian and African satellites. It includes:

News Service.
Senior Citizens’ Service.
Songs Service.
Educational Service.

II. The Development of Television Broadcasting in Egypt

Egyptian Television began broadcasting on 21^st July 1960 as per the agreement signed by the Egyptian government and the American RCA Company regarding the establishment of a television network in Egypt (7).

Egyptian Television comprises the following channels (8):

Channel One: Began broadcasting on 21^st July 1960. It is the main channel which covers all regions of the country and extends to neighboring Arab States. The average daily broadcast is 22.75 hours a day. This channel also broadcasts its programs via the Egyptian satellite.

Channel Twp began broadcasting on 21^st July 1961. It mainly presents cultural programs in addition to foreign drama. It broadcasts its programs 22.31 hours a day and also transmits them trough the Egyptian satellite.

Regional Channels:

Channel Three began broadcasting on 6^th October 1985. It covers the Greater Cairo governorate and also transmits its programs via the Egyptian satellite.
Channel Four began its transmission on 6^th October 1988. It covers the Canal region, with a broadcasting average of 18.57 hours daily.
Channel Five began its broadcasts on 12^th December 1990. It targets Alexandria and Al-Beheira Governorate and broadcasts for an average of 17.44 hours a day.
Channel Six: Began broadcasting on 31^st May 1994 and serves the Mid-Delta region. It broadcasts for 16.36 hours a day.
Channel Seven began broadcasting on 29^th July 1994 and serves the Northern Sa’eed region. It broadcasts for 16.11 hours a day.
Channel Eight: Began broadcasting on the 31^st May 1996 to serve the Southern Sa’eed region. It broadcasts for 15.22 hours a day.

The Establishment and Development of Egyptian Satellite Channels:

Satellite channels are affiliated to one of two sectors. The first is the sector of satellite channels (including the first and second satellite channels and the Nile TV International) and the second is the sector of specialized channels (including sport, news, drama, varieties, family and child, education and culture). These are in addition to the Egyptian Satellite Company which launched two Egyptian telecommunications satellites (Nilesat 101 and Nilesat 102).

I. Sector of Satellite Channels

This sector was established on 1 January 1995. It is considered the largest Arab governmental satellite sector, in terms of broadcasting hours (60 hours per day), geographical coverage and volume of local production. It constitutes of Egyptian Satellite Channels One and Two and the Nile TV International Channel (9).

Egyptian Satellite Channel One:

Establishment:

This channel is the first Arab satellite channel and the first utilization of the “high beam satellite station” on Arabsat since its launching in 1985.

Planning for this channel began in 1989 (10) following Egypt’s return to the Arab League. Technical specifications of the Arabsat satellites were studied, as well as their capacity to cover target areas. An agreement was signed by the Union of Television and Radio and the Arab Institution for Space Telecommunications in 1990. This agreement contained the following items (11):

a.	Determining the allocated satellite capacity of the first generation satellites in one satellite channel in C/S Transponder.
b.	Allocation shall begin on 1^st November 1990 and for 24 hours a day seven days a week and for the minimum of three years
c.	Egypt shall pay two million dollars a year for renting this channel
d.	The Egyptian television shall broadcast its programs on the satellite channel through the ground station in Ma'ady, which operates in conjunction with Arab Telecommunications Satellite and is affiliated to the National Authority for Telecommunications

Experimental broadcasting began on 5 November 1990, when stations set up in Egyptian embassies in some Arab countries succeeded in receiving clear signals. Official broadcasting began on 12 December 1990 during a ceremony in which the President inaugurated studios in the Maspeero Building (12)

2. Objectives:

The Egyptian Satellite Channel was established around the same time that Egyptian soldiers were sent to Hafr El-Baten in the kingdom of Saudi Arabia, to participate in the liberation of Kuwait. Work on its establishment was speeded up in order to broadcast Egyptian television materials to counter the psychological war launched by Iraqi media. (13)

The Egyptian Satellite Channel has the following objectives:

a.	Introducing Arab citizens to the Egyptian culture, which stems from their own backgrounds and expresses their feelings and values; in addition to adding to the Arab intellect in such a manner that would help unify their thoughts and their position toward common and crucial issues.
b.	Linking embassies and cultural and media centers in the Arab region, African and Europe to Egyptian media and introducing them to achievements in Egypt, in addition to creating an awareness of daily life of Egyptians through television programs
c.	Creating a link between expatriates in target areas and their motherland and informing them of the progress in and news of their country
d.	Promoting tourism and economic and commercial activities
e.	Using space in promoting the Egyptian media message on a wide scale, to consolidate our position among the competing live satellite broadcasting media.
f.	Benefiting from the beam of this satellite channel within Egypt to reach areas that the microwave network cannot reach.
g.	Ensuring extended television services to all areas of the country

3. Technical capabilities and Broadcasting via Satellite

The Egyptian Satellite Channel started broadcasting on ARABSAT 1-b on S-Band. It covered Africa (excluding the Southern areas), Europe, Arab countries and parts of Asia until Iran. At the outset, it reached 12 Arab countries that set up receiving antennas and a number of African states. This channel was re-broadcast to Bahrain, Kuwait and Yemen. It was moved to ARABSAT 1-C and then to the second generation of ARABSAT (2-a) in October 1996. (15)

Moreover, the Egyptian Satellite Channel extended its services by broadcasting on the European satellite EUTELSAT 2F3 orbiting at 16 degrees south, and then on INTEL SAT 707 orbiting at 1 degree west. After that a channel was rented on ALPHA STAR in order to reach the United States (16). In addition, the channel broadcast its programs on ASIA SAT 2 and NILESAT 101.

The Egyptian Satellite Channel broadcast its programs via several satellites. These are (17):

1.	ARABAT 2-A orbiting at 26 degrees east. It covers the Arab region, Southern Europe and until mid-Africa. Broadcasting on this satellite began on the 26 October 1996 with an open channel on C-Band frequency. This was following the expiry of the first generation of ARABSAT which Egypt broadcasted on as of 1990.
2.	EUTEL SAT W2 orbiting at 16 degrees east. This broadcast is received in Europe and the Mediterranean in the form of an open channel on KU –Band. Egyptian Satellite Channel began broadcasting via this satellite towards the end of 1992.
3.	INTELSAT 707 orbiting at 1 degree west, on C-Band frequency. Broadcasts since late 1994 and until early 1999 used the open analogue system while it was planned to use an open digital as of July 1996. INTELSAT 707 reaches Africa Gulf Sates, Western and Eastern Europe, South America and part of the United States’ Eastern Coast.
4.	The American Network ALPHA STAR on KU-Band frequency. Broadcast began in the open analogue system in February 1996 and was transferred to scrambled digital broadcasting in October that same year. Scrambled broadcasting covers the United Sates, Southern Canada, and Northern Mexico. Boston receives this channel via INTEL SAT and rebroadcasts it via ALPHA STAR.
5.	ASIA SAT 2 orbiting at 100.5 east on C-Band frequency. It covers Asia, Australia, Commonwealth countries (CIS), Egypt and Sudan. Experimental broadcasting began towards the end of 1996 and early 1997 using the analogue open system.
6.	Broadcasting on NILE SAT 101 began on the Media Professionals’ Day on 28 May 1998, following the launching of this satellite in April 1998. This satellite orbits at 7 degrees west. Broadcast of the channel on this satellite uses the unscrambled digital system as part of the group of channels of the Egyptian Television and Radio Union.

4. Political and Administrative Affiliation

The Egyptian Satellite Channel is part of the Union of Television and Radio. It is affiliated to the Satellite Sector which is part of this union that consists of many sectors, such as radio, television, production and others.

The Union of Television and Radio has complete ownership of the Egyptian Satellite Channel and is its primary source of funding. This union is a governmental body affiliated to the Ministry of Information. The Egyptian Satellite Network currently consists of several satellite channels. These are: Egypt Satellite Channel One, Egypt Satellite Channel Two, Nile International Channel, and the specialized satellite channels. This is in addition to the departments of censorship, libraries, production services, news and legal and financial affairs. (18).

The Egyptian Satellite Channel is received through several means:

Small ground stations (antennas) that receive programs and

rebroadcast them on their local channels (Bahrain and Kuwait).

Direct reception through satellite antennas which, depending on the strength of the broadcasted signal and the location of the antenna, receive the programs of this channel as a live broadcast.

Through subscription to cable services whereby a special station

receives the signals and rebroadcasts it to subscribers via cable, as is the case in the United Kingdom (19). This cable system allowed this channel to be the first foreign channel in France in April 1996.

5. Program Services

At the outset, the Egyptian Satellite Channel’s broadcasts were the same as those of local Channel One, with advertisements and remarks concerning family planning being substituted with music and natural scenery. Then, a soap opera was broadcast only on the satellite channel for one year. Following a decision not to broadcast any foreign material on the satellite channel, Arabic programs from Channel Two were broadcast on the Satellite Channel at the times when Channel One presented foreign programs. Broadcasting was for 13 hours at the beginning. They were increased to 19 in June 1993 following the Meeting of the Arab Ministers of Information in Cairo. Programs presented were those of Channel One in addition to the best from channels Two and Three. On the 1^st of July 1994, the Egyptian Satellite Channel began to broadcast for 24 hours a day with no re-runs (20). 95% of the programs broadcast on it were its own, and all were the production of the Union of Television and Radio Union, as well as selected programs from Egyptian channels (21).

The Egyptian Satellite Channel has a massive variety of programs that serve numerous media purposes and that run 24 hours a day. They fulfill the needs of viewers with regard to news, politics, economy, culture, sports and entertainment. In addition, it also presents programs for women and children. It depends on highly successful programs as well as on the vast Egyptian drama productions. The following table shows the total distribution of broadcasting hours of the Egyptian Satellite Channel, per kind of programs (22).

Table no.1

Distribution of Broadcasting Hours of the Egyptian Satellite Channel Per Type of Program

Type of Program	Hours of Broadcast Hrs. Min.	%
News and Political Programs	2299 42	26.18
Religious Programs	477 51	5.44
Cultural Programs	1015 27	11.56
Drama	2825 49	32.17
Entertainment and Varieties	1304 32	14.85
Women and Children	608 43	6.93
Commercial Advertisement, Services and Promotional Spots	251 56	2.87
Total	8784 --	100

Nile TV International

1. Establishment

Nile TV International is the second Egyptian Satellite Channel. Broadcasting began on 6^th October 1993 on an average of two hours per day which were increased to four upon formal opening on 31^st May 1994. Hours of broadcast increased to 15 a day during the International Population Conference held in Cairo, but then stabilized to 8 hours a day. Programs are in English and French and broadcasting now is for 13 hours and a half per day. (24).

2. Objectives

Nile TV International is an extension of the Egyptian Satellite Channel. Its target audience is the foreign viewer, and it aims to be Egypt’s gateway to the West (25). Its emphasis lays on the following:

a.	Promoting Arab issues and the Arab, regional and Egyptian point of view as regards to international events.
b.	Promoting general Egyptian issues such as the Egyptian economy and culture (arts, literature, history and archeology)
c.	Correcting the image of Islam and emphasizing its great values and liberality that the West is currently distorting.
d.	Dealing with international issues with a high level of performance, not only through interviews but also through specialized forums.

Nile TV International targets foreign viewers in Europe, North America, Asia and Africa. It addresses their mentalities in their own languages. It is the only Arab satellite channel broadcasting in languages other than Arabic (26). Its establishment is an important step toward communicating the Egyptian position regarding crucial Arab and international issues, exposing counter allegations targeting Egypt and its Arab brethren and explaining events in the Third World as well as activating relations with the peoples to which this channel is directed.

3. Technical Capabilities and Broadcast Via Satellite

Nile TV International broadcasts via the following satellites

1.	ARABSAT 2-A orbiting at 26 degrees eastالموقع المداري. It is received in the Arab Regions, Southern Europe and until mid-Africa. On the 26^th October 1996, it started to broadcast on the second generation of ARABSAT using open channels on the C-Band frequency.
2.	EUTEL SAT W2 orbiting at 16 degrees east. It can be received in Europe and the Mediterranean. Broadcast is on the KU-Band.
3.	INTEL SAT 707 orbiting at 1 degree west on C frequency. Broadcasting started in December 1994 using the open analogue system. Open digital broadcasting began in July 1996. This satellite covers Africa, the Gulf States, Western and Eastern Europe, South America and part of the Eastern Coast of the United States.
4.	The American network ALPHA STAR on the KU frequency. Broadcasting began in the analogue system February 1996 and was transferred to the scrambled digital system as of October 1996. The scrambled digital system covers the United States, Southern Canada and Northern Mexico. The channel is received in Boston via INTELSAT 707 which is re-broadcasted via Alpha Star.
5.	NILE SAT was launched on May 28, 1998. Nile TV International started to broadcast through it on May 31^st that same year, as part of the group of channels affiliated to the Union of Television and Radio that broadcast via this satellite using non-scrambled digital signals.
6.	ASIA SAT 2 orbiting at 100.5 degrees east.
7.	TEL STAR 11 and TEL STAR 5

1. Affiliation and Administration

Nile TV International is part of the Satellite Sector of the Union of Television and Radio. It aims to communicate with foreign viewers in both English and French. It is also broadcast locally on UHF to the Egyptian and foreign viewers in Egypt.

2. 5. Program Services

This channel mostly presents news programs, and reports, as well as documentaries, translated drama and programs on tourism.

These programs present the various aspects of politics, economy, arts and culture, as well as sports. It is greatly concerned with transmitting the Egyptian way of life and the Egyptian, Arab and Islamic culture from an Egyptian point of view (29). It broadcasts for 13 and a half hours a day.

Nile TV International also broadcasts on UHF to enable Egyptians and foreigners in the country access to it. (30)

The distribution of programs during the year 1999/2000 was as follows: (31)

Table no. 2

Distribution of Nile TV International Programs During 1999/2000

Type of Program	Hours of Broadcast Hrs min.	%
News and Political Programs	1828 9	37.48
Religious Programs	5 23	0.11
Cultural and Educational	1545 13	31.68
Drama	500 12	10.26
Entertainment and varieties	720 27	14.77
Women and Children	230 39	4.73
Commercial Advertisement, Services and Awareness Promotion	47 27	0.97
Total	4877 30	100

Egyptian Satellite Channel Two

1. Establishment

This channel started broadcasting on 1^st June 1996. It is a general scrambled channel that broadcasts 24 hours a day as part of A-Awa’el bouquet available to paying subscribers. It is received in Egypt through the Egyptian company CNE. In addition, it is broadcast through a non-scrambled digital system through NILE SAT 101 orbiting at 7 degrees west.

2. Objectives

This channel broadcasts through the system of pay TV within the AL-Awa’el Bouquet. Its programs are round the clock with no re-runs and targets Egyptians and Arabs in both Arab countries and in Europe. Broadcast is scrambled and requires a special decoder. (33)

This channel aims to compete with the increasing satellite channels. Therefore, it presents fast-paced, modern and distinguished programs to a paying audience. It also promotes Egyptian tourism and economy.

3. Technical Capabilities and Broadcast Via Satellite

Broadcast started via PANAM SAT 4 orbiting at 68.5 east on a KU Band, in 1996, as part of Al-Awael Bouquet. Afterward, it was transferred to NILE SAT. The Egyptian Satellite Channel Two broadcasts via the following satellites:

1.	INTEL SAT 707 orbiting at 1-degree west. It covers Africa, Gulf States, Western and Eastern Europe, Southern America and part of the United States East Coast. ALPHA STAR re-broadcasts the programs of this channel via cable to All North America.
2.	NILE SAT, orbiting at 7 degrees west. This channel, as well as others, started broadcasting via this satellite following its launching on 28^th April 1998.
3.	ASIA SAT 2 orbiting at 100.5 degrees east.
4.	HOTBIRD 2

4. Political and Administrative Affiliation

This channel is affiliated to the Union of Television and Radio. It is a scrambled channel operating by the Pay TV system.

5. Program Services

The Egyptian Satellite Channel Two broadcasts round the clock. All its programs are the production of the Satellite Production Sector. It is a fast-paced channel that presents a variety of programs on economy, tourism, women, children and varieties.

Following is the distribution of programs broadcasted by type (35).

Table no. 3

Distribution of Broadcasted Programs by Type

Type of Program		Hours of Broadcasting Hrs. Min.	%
News and Political Programs		2033 30	23.15
Religious Programs		366 18	4.17
Cultural Programs		789 41	8.99
Drama		2961 5	33.71
Entertainment and Varieties		1958 49	22.3
Women and Children		505 58	5.76
Commercial Advertisement, Services and Awareness Promotion		168 39	1.92
Total	8784		100

II. Sector of Specialized Channels

Specialization is a characteristic of our age. Media has gone through several developmental stages of communicating with the public, which are: the Elite Stage, where media was restricted to the most educated and affluent of the people, the Mass stage, where viewers were from all sectors of society, the Specialization stage, where media strives to fulfill the needs of a special and limited public and finally the Interactive stage, where individuals can control and select the information that suits their purposes. (36).

Radio and printed media preceded television in entering the specialization stage. The age of diversification in television channels began in the early 1980’s in the United States. It aimed to reach small targeted groups and individuals instead of whole societies by making use of the immense technological developments in the field of reception and broadcast. This is how specialized television channels appeared. They came as a response to a reality imposed by technological development and the different needs of the public. (37)

The Global Village and the information age are characteristics of our age which is also distinguished by disappearing borders, abundance in informatics, democracy in information access, in addition to specialization.

Developments in telecommunication made it possible to overcome limitations of the spectral field which is unable to contain the specialized systems. Moreover, digital technology had a big role in multiplying the numbers of channels broadcast by a single satellite. The Egyptian decision to execute the project of the Egyptian satellite NILE SAT 101, which is equipped with the latest technologies of digital compression was made to make available a greater number of channels serving Egypt and the Arab World. It also aimed to pave the way for Arab brethren to attempt this new experience and providing appropriate alternatives to the Arab public. (38)

The Specialized channels are the following:

1.	The Nile specialized channels affiliated to the Union of Television and Radio, including: News, Culture, Family, Drama, Family and Child, Varieties, Sports
2.	The Nile specialized channels supervised by the Ministry of Education, including the Basic Education Channels. The Ministry of Education undertakes the planning of their policies and provides for an educational channel for every stage of basic education. These channels are: Primary, Preparatory, Secondary, Technical, Languages, Literacy and Al-Tanweer
3.	Nile specialized channels supervised by the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research and include channels of Higher Education, Scientific Research and the Interactive Channel
4.	The Two Nile specialized channels supervised by the Ministry of Health

These channels all broadcast digitally. The Union of Television and Radio has a channel that broadcasts on UHF, 16 hours a day, and presents a mixture of the materials broadcast by these specialized channels (39).

Characteristics of these specialized channels: (40)

1.	Responding to the different needs of Egyptian and Arab viewers, because the pressures of life and the diversified requirements, cultures and preferences of individuals have made it impossible for a unified media message to satisfy the wants of all individuals, or even those of one individual at all times.
2.	Specialization necessitates increasing production in all areas of the media with a view to filling the spaces available in these channels.
3.	Giving the specialized channels an opportunity to increase their proficiency in programs in one field, thus enabling personnel to become specialists with accumulated experiences; which will upgrade the level of production.
4.	Making available new services that specialized channels may provide, such as movies, and scientific programs through pay TV.
5.	The interactive system adopted by some specialized channels allows viewers to be a participant in the media process and not only a passive receptor.
6.	Consolidating Egypt’s leadership in media (by attempting new frontiers, thus paving the way for Arab brethren) and complementing the pioneering role played by the Egyptian Satellite Channel in light of a developing society and the presence of affluent neighbors.

As regards the difficulties faced by these specialized channels, they can be summarized in the following points (41):

a.	The challenge of assuring the wide spread of digital receivers in Egypt and the Arab world, which requires substantial efforts to increase public awareness of the use of digital decoders and to manufacture this technology in Egypt so as to reduce costs of these equipment.
b.	The digital technology does not involve new satellites as much as it involves a comprehensive system necessitating new experiences on the part of engineers and technicians, as well as equipment and studios adaptable to this new technology and to the management of ground stations and satellites.
c.	The contents of programs on these specialized satellites should be purposeful, otherwise they would be reduced to mere repetitions unacceptable for these present channels.
d.	Competition with the various Arab and foreign channels.
e.	Funding, which mainly depends on self-capabilities, bearing in mind that it has become enormously costly for the media industry to produce attractive material.
f.	The social dimension of development whereby it is necessary for the media to help bridge the gap between the rich and the poor.
g.	The physical, human and technological obstacles facing the specialized Egyptian channels.
i.	The means to benefit from the margin of freedom given to the political and media system creatively, and presenting issues and taking part in resolving them.

1. Establishment of the Specialized Channels:

The decision of the Chairman of the Board of Trustees was issued on 1^st June 1997 to establish the Nile Sector for Specialized Channels. It includes the Nile channels for news, sports, drama, varieties, family and child, culture, education channels supervised by the Ministry of Education, the higher education channel supervised by the Ministry of Higher Education, Al-Manara Channel for scientific research, Nile Channel for Visual Information and an open channel broadcasting a selection of the Nile specialized channels on UHF. (42)

2. Objectives (43)

1.	Providing television services that are specialized, of high quality, comprehensive and accurate.
2.	Answering the needs of the various sectors of societies in Egypt and the Arab world.
3.	Accurately and objectively expressing Egypt’s political position.
4.	Emphasizing the sense of national belonging and promoting national identity.
5.	Showing the economic boom Egypt is undergoing now.
6.	Preserving the value system and the traditions of the society.
7.	Promoting political, economic and cultural awareness in the public and encouraging the public to effectively participate in the building of its country.
8.	Raising the standard of art appreciation and consolidating the values of good doing, justice and beauty.
9.	Encouraging talent and offering opportunities to the new generation of young creative people.
10.	Building bridges of creative interaction between the public and events out of their country.
11.	Promoting official efforts in generalizing education and eradicating illiteracy.
12.	Spreading health and sports consciousness among the young and presenting successful people that may become role models for them.

Nile Drama Channel:

1. Establishment

It started its experimental broadcasting on the 13^th anniversary of the Media Professionals’ day for 12 hours a day, divided in two broadcasting periods. Official broadcasting began on 15^th July 1996 for a total of 14 continuous hours. These were raised to 17 hours (44) and then to 24 hours a day. (45)

Nile Drama was the first of the Nile specialized channels. It began broadcasting before the launching of NILESAT, because most of its material was ready in view of the fact that it depends on the vast volume of soap operas and movies that have been produced since the opening of television. These constitute an immense amount of material not available to many other channels. Moreover, Egyptian drama is very popular among public in Egypt and the Arab world.

2. Objectives (46)

1.	It is the first Arab Channel specializing in drama.
2.	It has first right to soap operas produced by the Production Sector and Sawt Al-Qahera Company.
3.	Produces new forms of drama using modern methods that are not available to other production bodies members in the union.
4.	Presenting new types of drama.
5.	Producing specialized programs on drama production.
6.	Producing reports covering news of drama.
7.	Opening a doorway for creative experimental drama.
8.	Presenting selective works of fine world drama.

2. Ownership and Political and Administrative Affiliation

This channel is part of the Nile Specialized Channels and is affiliated to and funded by the Sector of Specialized Channels in the Union of Television and Radio.

Nile Drama Channel broadcasts are digital and scrambled. It has been part of the Al-Awael Bouquet since its launching, but can also received by digital receivers through NILE SAT 101 orbiting at 7 degrees west.

4. Broadcast and Satellites (47)

1.	This channel is part of the Al-Awa’el Bouquet which also includes the Egyptian Satellite Channel Two and the ART channels and others. These are broadcast through NILE SAT orbiting at 7 degrees West.
2.	It also broadcasts through INTELSAT 707 orbiting at 7 degrees west covering Africa, Gulf States, Europe, South America and part of the United States East Coast.
3.	ALPHA STAR (KU Band). The scrambled broadcasting of this network covers the United States, Southern Canada and Northern Mexico. These channels are received in Boston through INTEL SAT and are re-broadcast through ALPHA STAR.
4.	ASIA SAT, 100.5 east
5.	GALAXY 11

5. Program Services

At the beginning, the channel only broadcast carefully selected drama according to a plan aiming to revive old materials without trespassing on modern ones. These were taken from the libraries of the Television and Production sectors and Sawt Al-Qahera Audio Visual Company. With the regular broadcasting of the channel, a more comprehensive and integrated service was begun. It now consists of short drama, theatre, movies and soap operas, as well as some light programs. In addition the channel has started to produce its own materials consisting of all types of drama.

Combining the old with the modern has always been a concern of the channel as well as presenting media doses to the children and youth. Additionally, some materials are exclusive to this channel. The daily program is always varied as regards the late night period (theatre, short drama, movies, etc.) The total hours of broadcast for 1999/2000 was about 6584 (48)

The programs of the Nile Drama Channel can be divided into two kinds (49):

a.	Programs produced by other bodies: such as drama produced by the union (which are massive), and materials broadcast for the first time on the channel and which were also produced by the union or by the Production Sector or Sawt Al-Qahera Company for Audio Visuals.
b.	Programs produced by the Channel: these include drama and drama-related programs that aim to increase awareness and understanding of drama and its techniques.

The productions of the channel do not overlap with those of the union or the Sawt Al-Qahera Company due to production types and timing. The channel has produced the following programs.

a.	Short programs	Around 30 Min.
b.	Long programs	45-60 Mins.
c.	Documentaries
d.	Special programs
e.	Varieties: The channel is keen on producing songs and varieties that would constitute fillers between programs and would prepare viewers for programs coming next (50). Most of the broadcasting hours constitute of local material.

The following table shows the total number of broadcasting hours per kind of drama programs (51).

Table no. 4

Total hours of broadcasting per different types of drama programs

Type	Production hrs Hrs. Min
Regular programs	223 53
New regular programs	184 46
Special programs	19 35
Events covered (messages)	17 3
Fillers	9 36
Total	454 53

Nile Family and Child Channel

1. Establishment

This channel started broadcasting experimentally on 31^st May 1998 and for two hours a day. Official broadcasting began in early October 1998 with five hours a day (52). Now it transmits its programs 14 hours a day (53).

2. Objectives

1.	Presenting purposeful program that would benefit housewives.
2.	Presenting all that may be related to building a happy family life.
3.	Presenting programs that would improve general taste.
4.	Broadcasting programs that promote awareness in relation to physical and mental health and behavior.
5.	Presenting educational programs about child rearing.
6.	Paying adequate attention to all children age groups.
7.	Paying adequate attention to gifted children and those with special skills.
8.	Increasing children’s interest in the environment and environmental issues.
9.	Paying due attention to children with special needs and providing adequate media services to them.
10.	Introducing Arab children to different Arab and foreign cultures.

3. Scope of Broadcast and Use of Satellites

This channel broadcast its programs on NILESAT 101 orbiting at 7 degrees west, in addition to ASIA SAT 2, orbiting at 100.5 east (55).

4. Ownership and Funding

The Nile Family and Child Channel is affiliated to the specialized Nile Channels of the Union of Television and Radio, and is funded by the budget of the union.

5. Program Services

This channel broadcasts for 14 hours a day. As regards the types of programs presented on this channel, the channel Manager points out the diversified public of this channel children of different age groups and adults including women, husbands and teenagers.) The strategic outlook of the channel is that it is part of the Egyptian and Arab family: it plays with children, helps with household chores and laughs with the whole family, i.e. it creates a humane lighthearted atmosphere where culture, science and sports intermingle (56). During 1999/2000, the broadcasting hours amounted to 694 hours and 28 minutes distributed as follows: (57)

Table no. 5

Total number of broadcasting hours of Family and Child Channel Productions per type of program

Type	Hours of Production Hrs min
Regular programs	666 11
Special programs and reports	5 14
Cartoons	4 33
Festivals	18 30
Total	694 28

Nile Sports Channel

1. Establishment

Experimental broadcast of this channel began on 31^st May 1998, through NILE SAT orbiting at 7 degrees West. Broadcasting averaged 10 hours a day during the World Football Championship in France. Official broadcasting began in early October 1998 with an average of 12 hours 58 minutes a day. This was increased later on to 16 hours from 10 O’clock AM to 2 AM (59).

2. Objectives

1.	Opening a doorway for Egyptian and world sports.
2.	Live coverage of the most important tournaments in Egypt and the world.
3.	Presenting daily news reports on the most important games of the day.
4.	Presenting attractive programs on various sports.
5.	Paying due attention to the young and their problems and trying to find solutions for them.
6.	Introducing the Egyptian public to sports it is not familiar with.
7.	Presenting the stories of distinguished sportsmen who have achieved world recognition.
8.	Presenting daily reports and follow ups of major sports events.

3. Scope of Broadcast and Satellites Used

Nile Sports Channel broadcasts its programs through NILE SAT 101 orbiting at 7 degrees west (61).

4. Ownership and Political and Administrative Affiliation

The channel is affiliated to the Specialized Channels Sector in the Union of Television and Radio. It is funded by the budget of the union.

5. Program Services

Nile Sports broadcasts 16 hours a day. It particularly presents live or pre-recorded sports tournaments and games.

The channel is characterized by immediate follow up of sports events in addition to its presentation of documentaries. However, it must be said that, in general, its programs are disorganized. The main reason for this is that it mainly broadcasts tournament and games and those are sometimes not on time.

As regards competition with other sports channels, Nile Sports has taken the following steps:

1.	Broadcasts mainly constitute of various games and tournaments.
2.	The channel has its own individual character due to its employment of new casters. It also uses dual and immediate commentaries on sports events and has improved picture and vocabulary used.
3.	Immediate follow up of sports events.
4.	Employing sports stars in commentaries and presentation.
5.	Creating new types of programs, such as “The Nile Stadium”, as well as presenting summaries about all sport events in the various provinces of Egypt, with a view to encouraging these provincial teams.
6.	Holding live seminars which receive telephone calls from viewers and discuss important issues related to sports. These seminars are presented for an hour every week, which may be increased to two or three times a week according to the events underway.

The total number of hours broadcasted in 1999/2000 amounted to 5856, of which 4038 hours and 34 minutes were of the channel’s own productions. These were distributed as follows (63):

Table no. 6

Total number of hours produced by Nile Sports per type

Type	Hours of production Hrs. Min
Regular Programs	623 5
Special Programs	79 36
“Nile Stadium” Program	168 53
Live broadcasts of tournaments and games	3167 --
Total	4038 34

Nile Varieties Channel

1. Establishment

Nile Varieties broadcasts through NILE SAT 101 orbiting at 7 degrees west. Experimental broadcasting began on 31^st May 1998 for 4 hours a day. Official broadcasting began early in October 1998 for 6 hours a day (64), and have reached 16 hours a day in 1999/2000 (65).

2. Objectives

1.	Providing entertainment and pleasure to viewers and attempting to elevate general artistic taste.
2.	Broadcasting diversified programs of a high artistic quality.
3.	Reviving artistic shows and presenting them in a suitable and modern way.
4.	Reviving operas that are popular among the Egyptian and Arab public.
5.	Presenting meaningful video clips of songs.
6	Discovering new Egyptian talent in the fields of music and singing.
7.	Presenting different types of Egyptian, Arab and world art in an attractive manner.
8.	Reviving television theatre in a suitable and modern manner.
9.	Broadcasting Egyptian, Arab and world movies of a high quality.
10.	Shedding light on Famous Egyptian and Arab artists.

3. Scope of Broadcast and Use of Satellites

Nile Varieties broadcasts via NILE SAT 101 orbiting at 7 degrees west and via ASIA SAT 2 orbiting at 100.5 east (67).

4. Ownership, Political and Administrative Affiliation and Funding

As it is part of the Nile Specialized Channels group, Nile Varieties is owned by the Union of Television and Radio. It is funded by the union’s budget.

5. Program Services

This channel broadcasts for 16 hours a day. It assumes an intermediary position between cultural and light programs, by presenting programs that have cultural and artistic dimensions while being attractive to various segments of society.

The channel broadcast a total of 5306 during 1999/2000, of which 815 hours and 28 minutes were of its own production. These were distributed as follows:

Table no. 7

Total number of hours of Nile Varieties Productions per type of program

Type of Program	Hours of production Hrs. Min
Regular programs	765 4
Special programs	21 7
Festivals	20 26
Concerts	8 51
Total	815 28

Nile Educational Channels

1. Establishment

The experimental broadcasting of Nile Educational Channels began on 31^st May, 1998, with one channel only and for 4 hours a day. Programs during this phase were informational and dealt with arts, music and introducing the public to various colleges. Official broadcasting began in early November 1998 (69).

This group of channels consists of seven specialized channels. The number of hours of broadcasting for each is as follows

Table no. 8

Hours of broadcast in the Educational Channels

Channel	Hours of broadcast
Primary	12
Preparatory	12
Secondary	18
Technical	12
General Knowledge	10
Languages	12
Literacy	6 (experimental)

2. Objectives

1.	Providing quality educational services for all educational stages.
2.	Providing basic and simplified scientific education in all scientific and cultural fields.
3.	Help develop individual scientific research skills.
4.	Eradicating cultural illiteracy by presenting programs aiming to educate the public and eradicate intellectual illiteracy.
5	Providing advanced services in the domain of alphabetical literacy and adult education.
6	Paying due attention to teaching Arabic and reviving Arabic heritage.
7.	Teaching foreign languages.
8.	Providing training opportunities to teachers, principals and supervisors.
9.	Teaching useful hobbies and ways to carry out productive projects.

3. Technical Capabilities and Broadcast Via Satellite

Nile Educational Channels broadcast via NILE SAT 101, orbiting at 7 degrees west (72)

4. Ownership, Political and Administrative Affiliation and Funding

The Nile Educational Channels are affiliated to the Specialized Channels Sector in the Union of Television and Radio, and are funded by its budget.

The ministry of Education supervises the formulation of educational and scientific plans and the Union of Television and Radio produces the programs.

5. Program Services

The total hours of broadcast of these channels during 1999/2000 amounted to 27360, in addition to 114 hours of experimental broadcasting for the Literacy Channel which began broadcasting on 31^st May 2000. Hours produced by these channels during that same period amounted to 587 hours and 57 minutes, distributed as follows (73):

Table no. 9

Total number of hours of Nile Educational Channels Productions per type

Type of material	Hours of production Hrs. Min.
Programs	537 49
Drama	47 11
Reports and special seminars	2 57
Total	587 57

As for the strategy of educational programs, the following points may be identified:

1.	Most programs are related to the curricula. This adds to their importance as a new service, because they contain cartoons which attract students to the material being studied.
2.	Programs become more substantial by using educational means that motivate students to follow the program to the end.
3.	Use of graphics and diagrams.
4.	Utilizing modern techniques and presenting ideal laboratory experiments.
5.	Cooperating with education experts and specialized university professors.
6.	Using drama in the presentation of some educational programs, such as; languages (English, French) as well as mixing drama with informative material within a program (semi-drama).
7.	Using educational documentaries in technical education (agricultural, industrial, commercial), whereby filming is on natural location according to the educational materials presented. Here all details are touched upon to help students acquire scientific and technical skills and increase their ability to visualize the material written in the textbook, in addition to assisting teachers to succeed in the work.
8.	Paying due attention to materials that are not directly connected to the curricula but that can nevertheless enrich them. These include Arabic calligraphy, painting, music, flower arrangement and other programs. These increase students’ general knowledge, prevent boredom, benefit all society’s sectors and train teachers.

Nile News Channel

1. Establishment

Experimental broadcasting of this channel began, for an average of two hours a day, upon the launching of NILE SAT 101, and its transmission of several satellite television channels, on 31^st May 1998. Official broadcasting started in early October 1998 with an average of 12 hours per day (75). During 1999/2000, the channel broadcast for 16 hours every day. (76)

2. Objectives (77):

1.	Promoting Egyptian and Arab trends in politics and their economic conditions.
2.	Providing a news service at the highest level of professionalism and efficiency.
3.	Immediate coverage of important events by means of a wide network of representatives and correspondents.
4.	Presenting news analyses and commentaries that explain reasons and conditions of events.
5.	Carrying out live interviews with multiple parties in and out of Egypt.
6.	Presenting news programs, reports and investigations that allow for vital follow up of events.
7.	Explaining the Egyptian point of view as regards crucial Arab and international issues.
8.	Providing a comprehensive economic service to Egyptian, Arab and international businessmen.
9.	Promoting investment opportunities in Egypt and in all fields.
10.	Exchanging news with many international news resources and television stations.

3. Scope of Broadcast and use of Satellite:

Nile News broadcast via NILE SAT 101, orbiting at 7 degrees west, ASIA SAT 2, orbiting at 100.5 degrees east and TELSTAR 11 and TELSTAR 5 (78).

4. Ownership, Political and Administrative Affiliation and Funding

The Nile News Channel is affiliated to the Specialized Channels Sector in the Union of Television and Radio, and is funded by its budget.

5. Program Services (79):

Nile News broadcasts for 16 hours a day. Its programs include news, news headlines, news reports, world newspapers, and economic news and reports. The economic news and reports aim to follow up on local and international events. In addition, there are some programs that shed light on important news and information as well as documentaries and other related items.

The total number of broadcasting hours during 1999/2000 amounted to 5290, of which 734 hours and 38 minutes were produced by this channel and were distributed as follows:

Table no. 10

Total number of hours produced by Nile News per type of Program

Type of Program	Hors of production Hrs. Mins
Regular Programs	424 26
Special Programs	58 51
Interviews, Talk shows and debates	50 29
News reports	143 15
Economic reports	13 27
Documentaries	4 55
Messages	29 39
Harvest of the Year	5 57
Calendar of fasting (Ramadan)	3 39
Total	734 38

Nile Culture Channel

1. Establishment

Nile Culture is one of the Nile specialized channels groups that began broadcasting experimentally on 31^st May 1998 for an average of 4 hours a day. Official broadcasting began in early October 1998 for 6 hours a day (80). In 199/2000, broadcasting went up to 16 hours a day (81).

2. Objectives

1.	Providing a cultural service that is very diversified and of a high quality, with a view to raising the general taste of the public
2.	Providing programs that cover all aspects of cultural activities in Egypt.
3.	Promoting Arab cultural heritage.
4.	Introducing ancient and modern Arab intellectuals who have enriched Arab cultural life.
5.	Presenting various types of Arab and international arts.
6.	Promoting openness to fine international cultures.
7.	Presenting modern science in a simplified manner.
8.	Promoting Egyptian and international museums as well as literary and arts exhibitions.
9.	Introducing modern intellectual and cultural trends.
11.	Raising the artistic taste of viewers.

3. Broadcasting Capabilities and Use of satellites:

Nile Culture broadcast via NILE SAT 101 orbiting at 7 degrees west (83).

4. Ownership, Political and Administrative Affiliation and Funding:

Nile Culture is affiliated to the Specialized Channels Sector in the Union of Television and Radio, and is funded by its budget.

5. Program Services

This channel aims to provide a quality and diversified cultural service with a view to improving the taste of viewers. This is done mainly by presenting programs that cover all aspects of cultural life in Egypt, such as operas, Arabic orchestra concerts, the activities of cultural centers, seminars, and conferences held in the capital or the provinces. This is in addition to promoting the Arab cultural heritage through documentaries, and old movies. The channel also introduces the public to ancient and modern intellectuals, adopts new talent and presents the different kinds of Arab and international art, such as cinema, theatre, music, singing and plastic arts. It also encourages openness to other foreign fine cultures by broadcasting world theatre performances and cinema, simplified science programs, cultural competitions, filming archeological sites and museums as well as literary and artistic exhibitions and broadcasting talk shows dealing with the latest cultural issues. (84)

The total number of broadcasting hours amount to 5861, of which 681 hours and 45 minutes were produced by Nile Culture (85):

Table no.11

Total number of hours produced by Nile Culture per kind of materials

Type of Program	Hours produced Hrs Min
Continuous and regular programs	477 59
New regular programs	203 46
Total	681 45

AL-Manara Channel for Scientific Research

1. Establishment

Experimental broadcasting for this channel began on 1^st November 1998 for one hour a day (86). Daily broadcast of this channel is 12 hours a day from 11AM till 3PM and is re-broadcast twice (87).

Objectives (88):

Spreading scientific awareness as a basis for developing the popular environment necessary for scientific and technological advancement in the country, in light of the pivotal role of scientific research in enriching the world and modernizing it as well as the advancement of technology and the ensuing economic, social and cultural growth.

The channel aims to be a beacon for science and technology in Egypt and the Arab world. The channel will present the achievements of the Egyptian and international scientific communities with regard to new information and experiences that would be placed on the market in the form of various goods and services and would be subject to international trade, thus ensuring our position in international markets.

3. Broadcasting Capabilities and Use of satellites:

Al-Manara (Nile Channel for Scientific Research) is broadcast via NILE SAT 101 orbiting at 7 degrees West.

4. Ownership, Political and Administrative Affiliation and Funding:

The Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research supervises the contents presented by this channel. However, as part of the Nile Specialized Channels group, it is owned by the Union of Television and Radio and funded by its budget.

5. Program Services.

This channel presents only scientific contents in all fields of science and technology. It broadcasts the latest achievements in areas like biotechnology, genetic engineering, methods of fast transfer of information, robots, and advanced computer science and natural resources.

The channel also broadcasts local and international seminars, conferences and workshops. It also increases public awareness of the importance of scientific research and the role of scientific institutions in Egypt, produces programs for children and youth motivating them to carry out scientific research and spreads scientific culture (89).

Nile Higher Education Channel

1. Establishment

Nile Higher Education Channel began its experimental broadcasting early in November 1998.

2. Objectives (90):

1.	Serving the higher education process and especially the faculties that have a surplus of students and limited places.
2.	Increasing general knowledge of students in a realistic manner including important information about current events.
3.	Creating role models and a sense of belonging among the young by presenting scientists, intellectuals and government officials.
4.	Linking academic aspects with practical life and society.
5.	Applying the principle of continuous education and introducing modern cultural and scientific fields.
6.	Participating in the process of distant education by following the principle of open education, in cooperation with some faculties and institutes.

3. Scope of Broadcasting and Use of satellites:

Nile Higher Education Channel broadcast via NILE SAT 101 orbiting at 7 degrees West.

4. Ownership, Political and Administrative Affiliation and Funding:

5. Program Services

The channel presents excellent scientific contents with a view to serving the higher education process in faculties and institutes. It also aims to help overcome difficulties related to the overcrowded university campuses. It broadcasts lectures from institutes and universities in all academic fields and poses the students’ questions and inquiries to professors. Answers to these are received and broadcast consecutively. In addition, it broadcasts the activities and news of universities. The total number of broadcast hours during 1999/2000 amounted to 3940, of which 377 hours and 7 minutes were produced by the channel itself. These were distributed as follows (91):

Table no. 12

Total number of Nile Higher Education Channel productions per type of program

Type	Hours of production Hrs. Min
Lectures	43 41
Programs	333 26
Total	377 7

III. The Egyptian Satellite Company

1. Establishment

The project of the Egyptian Satellite Company was presented at the meeting of the General Investment Authority on 23 January 1996. Its establishment was approved by the General Assembly of the Union of Television and Radio and its Board of Trustees in 28 February 1996. It was established as an Egyptian stock company as per the Investment Law no. 230 for the year 1989 and its executive regulations (92).

2. Capital Investments

Table 13

Capital Investors in the Egyptian Satellite Company and Percentage of Shares

Shareholders	Percentage of shares
Union of Television and Radio	40%
Egyptian Company for Investment	15%
The Arab Industrial Authority	10%
Egyptian Ahli Bank	7.5%
Cairo Bank	7.5%
General Egyptian Public underwriters	20%

The capital investment in this company is $US 500 million and that of which $US 100 millions was issued (93). Shares were put up on the market for underwriting for one month as of 17 May 1996. Underwriting was stopped ten days later because demand far surpassed the number of shares put up. The duration of this company’s operations was identified at 25 years as of the date of entry in the commercial register. (94)

3. Objectives

a.	Establish and own both ground and space sectors of satellite systems, including the manufacturing ownership, operation and management of ground stations and their annexes.
b.	Leasing satellite capacities and ground annexes.
c.	Providing any other services related to the purposes of the company, in the context of laws regulating radio and television transmission in Egypt, as well as decisions pertaining to scrambled channels, receivers and necessary decoding. (95)

4. Board of Directors

The company is headed by a board of directors made of 11 members at the least appointed by the Ordinary General Assembly. Each of the members should own a minimum of $US 5000 worth of shares. A maximum of two members can be appointed on the basis of their experience.

The Board of Directors constitutes of 11 members as follows: (96)

1 Representatives of the Union of Television and Radio.

2 Representatives of the Egyptian Company for Investments.

1 Representative of the Arab Industrial Authority.

1 Representative of the Egyptian Ahli Bank.

1 Representative of Cairo Bank.

1 Representative of general underwriters.

On the 1^st of July 1996 shareholders were invited to attend the first meeting of the General Assembly of the company to be held on 16^th July 1996. During this meeting operation procedures were begun and the first Board of Directors was selected. (The first head of Board of Directors was Ameen Basiouni, who was also former President of the Board of Trustees of the Union of Television and Radio). The Board agreed to ask shareholders to complete payment of the capital investment.

IV. NILE SAT 101

1. Establishment

The history of NILESAT 101 goes back to 1997, when radio-engineering specialists at the Egyptian Ministry of Education applied for a location for an Egyptian satellite for live television broadcasting on the fixed orbit. The International Organization for Space Telecommunication, during the World Administrative Radio Conference 77, allocated orbit degree 7 West to the Egyptian satellite, with the capacity of 5 channels transmitting through KU frequencies (97).

Since early 1980s, specialists in radio engineering began preliminary studies in cooperation with a foreign telecommunication company. These studies aimed at identifying technical specifications and determining the costs of the project. They decided to ask the Ministry of Information to include $US 350 Million as part of the five year plan of the satellite project. However, the capabilities of the government at the time did not permit the execution of this project. (98)

The project was approved in the Third Five Year Plan (1992-1997) and was raised by Egypt in specialized international bodies. To support its space projects, Egypt asked in 1994 for an increase in the number of channels to 20 and applied for an additional orbit location at Meridian 40 East. The contents of these studies were communicated to international bodies during the period from 1994-1998. A decision was made to declare the technical specifications of the Egyptian satellite internationally as per the regulations of the International Union of Space Telecommunications (99).

In 1994, the Parliamentary Committee for Culture and Media demanded that the feasibility study for the satellite be completed, especially that the countries sharing the space with Egypt and which might be affected by its orbiting degree (Sudan, Albania and Yugoslavia) have made no objections. Thus, the project acquired an international dimension. (100)

Preliminary studies were carried out from 1977 till 1994. Egypt made three formal requests at international bodies responsible for the location of the satellite, the number of channels and frequencies with regard to improving performance, expanding coverage and identifying the appropriate diameter of receiving antennas (101).

The Canadian company TELESAT was chosen as consultant. They were to identify technical specifications of the satellite with a view to inviting international bids. A booklet of specifications was prepared early in 1995 while at the same time an economic consulting bureau was contracted to prepare the feasibility study. The report concluded that the project will cost approximately US$ 200 million, and that if it were to be managed by an independent company (in which the Union of Television and Radio would have shares) the capital will be recovered within 4 or 5 years. (102)

The President signed a document regarding executive steps of manufacturing the Egyptian satellite on the 12th Media Professionals’ Day (31^st May 1995) (103).

Four international companies (two European and two American) were chosen for their experience in such projects, and were invited to present their offers. These were:

a.	Aero Special for Space and Defense (French).
b.	Hughes International for Space and Telecommunication (American).
c.	Matra Marcony Space (French).
d.	Martin Marina (American).

Each company combines a number of companies from different countries and with various experiences in the domain of space technology (104)

27.2.1995: Date of receipt of bids following announcement.
27.4.1995: Date of submission of offers.
2.5.1995: Date of opening the bids envelops
11.8.1995: putting the bids to practice among three companies.
25.8.1995: Announcing the results. The French company Matra Marcony got the contract.
25.10.1995: Signing the contract with this company. The final costs of manufacturing the satellites amounted to 158,758 million dollars (105).
28.4.1998: The Egyptian satellite NILE SAT 101 was launched from launching base in French Bejianna, in northern Latin America aboard flight 108 of the rocket Arian Space, following its manufacturing by Matra Marcony in collaboration with twelve European companies. Manufacturing took around three years (106).
7.5.1998: The Egyptian satellite took its position at orbit 7 degrees west at 36000 kilometers above Earth.
31.5.1998: On the fifteenth Media People’s Day, the president gave the signal for uploading open and scrambled radio and television channels unto the satellite. (107)

2. Advantages of the Satellite (108)

a.	Promoting the Egyptian point of view and unifying the Arab position.
b.	Remedying the clear discrepancies between programs transmitted in Cairo and the local channels each of which transmits different programs and for limited hours.
c.	Covering areas that do not receive Egyptian radio and television in Egypt.
d.	Spreading Egyptian arts and culture in the Arab world with a view to facing the counter media invasion.
e.	Doing without rental of channels from other countries’ satellites to cover international events or to ensure the spread of Egyptian channels.
f.	Keeping in step with the modern age and attempting to overcome social problems in an advanced way.
g.	Activating electronic industries related to this new technology.

3. Technical Specifications

Table no. 14

The principal Specifications of NILE SAT 101 (109)

Satellite’s identifying number	NILE SAT 101 (first satellite of the first generation
Radiation capacity القدرة الاشعاعية	47-50.5 decibel watt
Orbit degree	7 degrees west
Broadcasting system	KU 11.7-12.1 GEGA HERTZ
Number of satellite channel	12+ 4 reserve
Capacity of satellite channel	8 television channels, 3 radio, information channel
Width of frequency scope of satellite channel	33 mega hertz
Transmitting capacity of channel	109 watt
Total mass without fuel	795 kilograms
Total mass with fuel	1664 kilograms
كسب هوائي الارسال بالقمر	28.9 decibel watt
كسب هوائي الاستقبال بالقمر	28.5 decibel watt
Average consumption of electricity by equipment	3.02 kilo watt
Broadcasting system	Digital
No. of channels made available by digital system	84
Uses of satellite	Radio, television, information, internet, interactive
Diameter of receiving dish	50-75 centimeters
Presumptive life span	12+3 on declining orbitمدار مائل (it was possible to increase fuel at uploading, thus possibly increasing life span to 16.5 years
Controlling system	Automatic using UNIX operating systems

The Egyptian satellite is the first to use digital compression technology in the Middle East. It reaches 26 Arab and foreign countries (95% of the Arab world, in addition to other neighboring countries), and covers the region from the Arabian Gulf East to the Atlantic west and from the Mediterranean, north until Aden and Bab El-Mandeb Strait and most of Sudan, south. (110)

The digital compression technology makes it possible to increase the number of programs broadcast on every channel. It depends on the human eye’s retentivity, thus enabling redundancy removal and subsequently provides time to transmit this redundant information. The strength of transmission depends on geographical location, and is at its strongest in the areas surrounding the transmission stations (50.3 decibel watt). Larger antennas enable reception in farther areas at 47.3 decibel watts. The presumptive life span of the satellite is 12 years + 3 on a declining orbit. (112)

Table no. 15

Effective radiation capacity of NILESAT in main capital cities

City	DBW	City	DBW
Cairo	50.3	Doha	49.2
Alexandria	50.3	Muscat	48
Aswan	50.2	Abu Dhabi	48.9
Beirut	50.2	Aden	50.3
Damascus	50.3	Casa Blanca	47.7
Amman	50.3	Marrakech	47.7
Riyadh	50.2	Algeria	47.3
Mecca	50.1	Tunis	50.2
Kuwait	50.3	Tripoli	50.2
Al-Manama	49.2	Al-Khartoum	48.2
Baghdad	48.2	Jerusalem	50.2
Mogadishu	47.2	Nouakchott	47.2
Djibouti	48.2	Comoros Islands	33.5

4. Services Provided by the Satellite

a.	Digital radio and television transmission.
b.	Transmission of information including internet and business services.
c.	New television services such as home shopping.
d.	Pay TV by subscription.
e.	General and university distant education.
f.	Distant medical services.
g.	Strategic substitute to ground transmission networks.
h.	Radio services.
i.	System of paying for specific programs with or without pre-pay.
j.	Electronic program guide.
k.	Translation to and from all languages.

Services of Ground Stations (115):

The ground satellite sector constitutes of two ground control stations. The main one is in the city of 6^th October, where operations started on 15.11.1996. It has several buildings for control, transmission and reception, in addition to huge antennas that accurately identify the position of the satellite and send commands to adjust its position. Another supporting station is in Al-Hamam city in Alexandria.

The ground stations perform the following services:

a. Control, directing and tracking services: The ground station is used for directing and tracking the satellite and for broadcasting programs and channels uploaded on it at 17 gega hertz. In addition, they are used to follow up and signal commands to other satellites during orbiting’s transitional phase in the first stage of launching (at 17/12 gega hertz using an 6.1 meter antenna).

b. Services of the digital broadcasting center: Phillips DVS for digital system provided digital compression equipment that employ the international system MPEG2/DVB. This system can broadcast around 60 channels in the first stage, in addition to 130 stereo-sound circuits and information channels (educational, applications, Internet) with a GSM control system.

c. Center for program preparation: Includes post-production processes, automatic recording and broadcasting equipment, an automatic tabulation (scheduling) system and the ability to provide services regarding transmission of television programs upon demand.

d. Station for transmitting local programs (uplink): Local programs are transmitted via an antenna 6.1 m. in diameter. It is done at the frequency range of 17 gega hertz. Width of frequency scope is 33 megahertz per channel. This is achieved by using a powerful magnifier and an automatic control and tracking system that operates by UNIX.

Table no. (16)

Distribution of frequencies of NILE SAT 101 Channels (117)

Channel no.	Frequency (gega hertz)	Polarity	Channel no.	Frequency (gegahertz)	Polarity
2	11.747	V	10	11.900	V
3	11.766	H	11	11.919	H
4	11.785	V	12	11.938	V
5	11.804	H	13	11.958	H
6	11.823	V	14	11.977	V
7	11.842	H	15	11.996	H
8	11861	V	16	12.015	V
9	11.881	H	17	12.034	H
			18	12.054	V

5. Investments in the Satellite

The cost of renting a satellite channel on NILE SAT is around 3 million dollars a year, in addition to 300 thousands in case of using the services of the Egyptian ground station (118).

There are now 12 channels, but digital compression has allowed 84 television channels.

NILESAT 101 provides many radio and television services, including:

3 satellite channels managed by the Union of Television and Radio.
Two channels for ART.
Two satellite channels for Show Time.
Two satellite channels for Iraq and Libya.
In addition to a number of channel rented to Arab stations. (119)

Data show that all channels have been rented, for the satellite now carries 80 Egyptian, Arab and international channels in addition to tens of radio channels. The company made a profit of 3 million dollars in 1998 and 5 million in 1999 (129).

V. The Second Egyptian Satellite NILE SAT 102 (121)

1. Establishment

The success of NILE SAT 101 created a need for a second satellite that would accommodate the continuous demands made on the company by satellite channel owners who wish to broadcast through Egyptian satellites. This is in addition to the need to keep in step with the new wave in Internet, transmission of information and interactive services.

The Egyptian Company for Satellites took steps to manufacture and launch the second satellite. Manufacturing took one year and a half and cost amounted to 140 million dollars. The company was charged according to the 1995 prices as stipulated in the contract for manufacturing the first satellite. Thus the satellite was manufactured in 1999 at the prices of 1995. Moreover, when manufacturing the first satellite costs included the manufacturing of 10% of the components as reserve to be used in the second satellite. It was launched at dawn on 18 August 2000.

2. The advantages of the second satellite:

a.	It is the first Arab satellite to be used only for transmitting television channels, information and multi media.
b.	It uses the digital system which permits the compression of a number of television channels in one. This increases the number of channels to 84.
c.	The digital system offers the possibility to scramble television channels upon demands of their owners, and to transmit them to paying subscribers. By this the Egyptian satellite will be in step with the current trend of Pay Television.
d.	Moreover, the digital system used by the satellite and its strength of transmission allows a direct broadcasting with a high degree of clarity to the Arab region.

3.Technical Specifications

Table no. 17

Principle Specifications of NILE SAT 102

The satellite’s defining number	NILE SAT 102 (second satellite of the first generation.
Maximum radiation capacity القدرة الاشعاعية	50.3 decibel watt
Orbit position	7 degrees west
Transmission system	KU 11.7-12.1 gega hertz
No. of satellite channels	12
Capacity of channel transmission	109 watt
Satellite’s total mass	1664 kilograms
كسب هوائي الارسال بالقمر	28.9 decibel watt
Broadcasting system	digital
No. of channels available through digital system	84
Uses of satellite	Information, internet, interactive, radio, television
Diameter of receiving dish	50-75 centimeter
Satellite’s presumptive life span	16 years

4. Services Provided by the Satellite:

a.	Transmitting information especially with regard to internet, economy, stock markets, banks and businesspeople.
b.	Video on demand channels.
c.	Home shopping channels.
d.	Expanding exchange of news, messages of correspondents and live broadcasts of major events.
e.	Distant education services.
f.	Radio and television transmission.

A new receiving antenna was set up to cover Europe. It will facilitate the transmission of European channels and information services directly from Europe. An agreement has been reached with British Telecom to build a ground station in London that would directly transmit to the second Egyptian satellite. Another one will be set up in Beirut to facilitate the transmission of Lebanese channels from Beirut directly unto it.

The Egyptian Company for Satellites has completed the technical preparations for transmitting Internet and information services from the main ground station in 6^th October.

5. Investments in the Satellite

5% of the satellite space was rented prior to its launching. The company continues to market the remaining spaces after launching.

In a new development on the Egyptian media scene, four Egyptian satellite channels have begun broadcasting. These are Dream TV, Al-Mehwar, Egypt Tourism and Tamima Home Shopping. These were launched on the 18^th Media Professionals Day (122). Thus, the year 2001 witnessed the launching of private satellite television channels, after a long period of state monopoly of radio and television. This offers a positive outlook future for developments in Egyptian audio and visual media.

System of Satellite Reception in Egypt

Satellite receiving dishes were first introduced in Egypt in the 1980’s. At first they were found on the roofs of embassies and villas and mansions of the rich and educated and in the affluent residential areas. Only a limited number of satellite channels were offered at the time. However, with the increasing advancement of reception antenna technology, their prices went down and the number of satellite channels increased.

Reception of satellite channels was allowed in Egypt in the early 1990’s when executive regulations were issued concerning ownership of satellite dishes. Individuals were allowed to own dishes with a diameter not exceeding 240 centimeters, while political and economic bodies, embassies and consulates were allowed to own dishes with a 3-meter diameter. This researcher believes that restricting the diameter of dishes is no longer useful, in view of the developments in telecommunication technology and the launching of several satellites with tens of channels uploaded on them. This has been made possible especially following the use of digital compression, whereby the Egyptians owning satellite receivers can view hundreds of satellite channels.

Following is a table of the distribution of reception antennas in Egypt, according to the State’s general statistics (123)

Estimated number of families owning satellite dishes and televisions

Governorate	Estimated no. of families owning a satellite dish	Estimated no. of families owning a television
Cairo	82300	1435121
Alexandria	40900	660560
Port Said	5600	95794
Suez	4500	71647
Dimyat	3750	40457
Daqhalia	17000	566469
Al-Sharqia	15000	146136
Al-Qalyoubia	12500	447956
Kafr Al-Sheikh	6500	219073
Al-Gharbia	16000	481815
Al-Manoufia	7500	346060
Al-Behera	12700	405691
Al-Isma’ilia	4200	100636
Al-Giza	33500	751035
Bani Suweif	1250	160644
Al-Fayoom	1350	136049
Al-Minya	6300	297501
Asyoot	1250	23600
Soohag	1350	266464
Qana	1050	310779
Aswan	12	175492
Luxor	21	59719
Red Sea	150	18000
Al-Wadi Al-Jadeed	13	21440
Matrooh	100	15003
Northern Sainay	75	30349
Southern Sinai	92	6679
Total	274963	7290167

Pay TV in Egypt:

The Egyptian News Company was established in the framework of Investment Law no. 230 for the year 1989 as a joint stock company. Its operations started in October 1990. It was the first company licensed to receive CNN through satellite and rebroadcast it to subscribers (as per law of internal investment.) Its capital investment, in which the Union of Television and radio participated, was 1.608 million Egyptian pounds at the time.

The state issued a 25-year license to this company as of the date of entry in the commercial register. List of founders included the Union of Radio and Television, Egyptian Company for Investment Projects and Tetrad International Corporation. Its objective was to receive televised news from CNN and rebroadcast it to subscribers (24 hours a day) in exchange for an annual subscription fee (124).

CNN had started broadcasting free of charge to the Egyptian public before the Gulf War and for four hours every day. Its role was expanded during the Gulf War which began in January 1991. It broadcast 24 hours a day on 16^th and 17^th of January, and for eight hours after that. Broadcasting to the public was terminated in early April. The Egyptian News Company began its operations in August 1991 and started broadcasting to subscribers round the clock, in early October 1991. Thus it became the first pay TV Company in Egypt and the Arab region.

In April 1993, it started to broadcast MTV in order to increase number of channels available to subscribers. Kuwait satellite channel was presented to subscribers free of charge.

As a further step, the Egyptian News Company concluded an agreement with Multi Choice Africa, by which the name of the company was changed to Cable News of Egypt and new channels were broadcast. These included Super Sports, M. Net, and KTV. Egypt was the first Arab country to use the Pay TV system. This company currently operates by two systems:

· The first system: constitutes of a number of Arab and foreign channels transmitted on VHF as one service.

· The second system: combines a number of channels broadcast live and include Al-Awa’el (ART, Nile Drama, movies second Egypt Satellite Channel and the Showtime bouquet.)

In 1998, the Nile Communication Network (NCN) was established by the Union of Television and Radio and Cable News of Egypt. This company specializes in establishing and managing scrambling systems, as well as related Digital and systems, distributing channels and controlling the coverage data of the Egyptian satellite. It also aims to attain the highest level of technical capacity including interactive educational channels (125).

Background of the Development of Internet:

Internet is the culmination of telecommunication in our age. Millions of people use it across all continents. It spares time, disseminates science, culture and news and partakes of the reformulation of the life of individuals and societies (126). Internet is not restricted to the fast transfer of information by enabling users to access what they need. There are many ways that people can use Internet in their private lives including (127):

· Managing personal businesses and capital investments.

· Accessing information for personal use.

· Planning travel.

· Pursuing hobbies, entertainment and culture.

· Educating oneself about health and fitness matters.

· Understanding legal issues.

· Interacting with society.

Internet is also characterized by its ability to provide users with detailed information. The more developed the means of presenting information, the more Internet will be used for personal purposes.

Governments use Internet to transfer information to various locations quickly, and politicians use it to follow political news and establish a positive presence. Internet is an unprecedented fast and cheap way to transfer information. Increasing the volume of political and governmental information placed on it may render it the second state means of political communication (television being the first). (128)

The idea of Internet began in the late 1950’s and early 1960’s in the United States. The Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) was established at that time as part of the Defense Ministry to develop science and technology for military uses. Following the launch of the first American satellite, the agency began to concentrate on telecommunication technologies and computer networks. It established a number of research centers in American universities, then it became necessary to find a way to link them. Thus the concept of Internet which was formulated to link research centers became an international network linking millions of users all over the world. It is therefore clear that Internet came as a result of a need fulfilled and not from a clearly defined pre-formulated plan (129).

Egypt and the Internet (130)

Computers were first used in Egypt in the mid 1960’s and became widespread in the mid 1980’s. Internet was introduced to the country in 1993 through a number of networks, namely:

· The Egyptian Universities Network (Info@frcu.eun.eg): This network links Egyptian universities and works at several levels. It links different departments in one faculty, different faculties in one university and the different universities.

· Information and Decision Support Center in the Ministers’ Council (Idsc.gov.com): This center operates at the governmental and private levels, in addition to its availability for use by some Arab countries.

· The National Network for Scientific and Technological Information (Ritsec.com.eg)

· This network is affiliated to the Scientific and Technological Academy and aims to assist Egyptian researchers.

* In 1989 the Egyptian Universities Network was linked to the international network BITNET.

* In 1993, the Egyptian Universities Network was connected to the Internet at 9.6 kilobytes per second.

* In 1994, dial up speed سرعة الاتصال was increased to 64 kilobytes per second.

* In 1996, speed was increased to 256 kilobytes per second.

* In 1998, the number of Internet users in Egypt was 65000, representing approximately 1% of the population.

This service is provided in Egypt through the Higher Council of Universities, Information Center at the Ministers’ Council, the Regional Center for Information Technology and some private companies that provide Internet services for an annual or monthly fee.

In January 2002, Internet became free of charge. The cost of service is now restricted to telephone bills with no subscription fees.

Evaluation of the Effects of Modern Media

I. Evaluation of the Effects of modern Media on Social Aspects:

Researchers have been concerned with the effects of modern media of the various social aspects of Egyptian life, as communication is a mutually affecting activity. One of the most prominent of such studies is that prepared by Suzan Qulaini on the ‘Effects of Satellite Television on Social Trends Among the Young” (131). The study concluded that, taking into consideration other factors such as age, educational, social, and economic levels and marital status, excessive viewing of satellite television has numerous effects. These include a trend among the young to desire to leave the country, a negative attitude toward clothes made in Egypt, a tendency to follow fashion, indulgence in fast food and a misunderstanding of the concept of freedom. However, some tendencies that are deeply entrenched in the young Egyptians’ minds have not changed. These include security of the country and the respectful relationship with parents.

The study carried out by Hanan Elewa on the “Role of Satellite Channels in Changing Types of Social Behavior in a sample of Egyptian Public” (132) shows that social soap operas are the most widely watched soap operas. It also showed that Egyptian one prevail in Arab satellite channels, and that these show a high degree of unstable types of behavior such as the materialistic, inhumane traits and betrayals. The surveyed sample ranked Egyptian satellite channels as third among the most elements influencing behavior the most after television and family. It identified the most important social issues in the Egyptian society as being terrorism, unemployment and lack of family relations. 90.5% of them explained that they did not, however, watch drama works on unemployment while 70.8% did not watch drama dealing with terrorism.

A new study on Safety of Children Using Internet (133) showed that 80% of them are below 16 years of age, while 21% of them are between 16 to 18 years old. 61% are males and 39%, females. 58% have professional fathers (medical doctors, engineers, etc.). 74% of them connect to the Internet from their homes, while 9% do so from a friend’s house.

The study carried out by Najwa Abdel Salam on “Trends and Motives of Internet Use Among Egyptian Youth,” (134) reveals a variety of motives. These include accessing information, entertainment, forming friendships, curiosity, filling spare time and trying new innovations. 81.2% pointed out the ease with which they access information through Internet. 51.7% of them have personal Internet subscriptions, 14.8% connect through their work places, 20.8% through Internet cafes and 12.4% connect from scientific bodies and centers.

Mr. Bakheet’s study on the “Types and Habits of Internet Use By University Professors Using the Egyptian Universities Network” (135) revealed that their use of Internet is of a profession-related nature. Email is the first area in which they benefit from Internet but they also use it to access information, which underlines the role of Internet in scientific research.

The main effects of modern media, at the social level, may be that it creates a gap between the different sectors of society within one country. On the one hand there are those who can financially afford exposure to this modern media, and on the other, there are those who cannot. The ones who can will have more knowledge from which they can benefit, while in the case of others, economic conditions will prevent them from delving in this field. This is especially true in a country where the individual average income is less than it is in other countries. This was evident when the broadcasting of the football games in a tournament in which Egypt participated was scrambled. Only subscribers in Al-Awae’el were able to watch them and Egyptian local and satellite channels could not present them to non-subscribing viewers. At the time this incident was very frustrating to the general Egyptian public. A number of cafes took advantage of this situation and raised the prices of items on their menus in exchange for the opportunity they provide their customers to watch these scrambled channels. This almost occurred once again during the latest African Tournament. This might be an ordinary situation in Western countries, where viewers have become accustomed to pay TV and subscribing in scrambled channels and cable. However, it is very strange to the Egyptian viewer who is not used to pay for watching television, as channels are government owned. Moreover, modern media and especially Internet have secluded individuals from their societies and provide opportunity to access pornographic sites that contradict the customs and traditions of the Egyptian society.

II. Evaluating the Effects of Modern Media on the Conditions of the Media Itself:

Media has benefited from satellite technology. This is made clear by the numerous Egyptian satellite channels and the continuous increase in their numbers. Channels are now general or specialized, governmental or private. In addition, Egypt has launched two satellites and established a satellite company, a media city and the CNE Company that takes care of pay TV. This exemplifies the effects of telecommunication technology in the development of Egyptian media, and underlines the benefits media reaped from satellites and computers. Media benefited from Internet services in many ways, most prominent of which is electronic journalism; for many Egyptian newspapers now have web sites. However, these modern means have had a negative impact on traditional media. They have dispersed the public among different channels and may have had a hand in the cultural invasion that aims to present the “New World Order” as the ideal model of advancement. Another effect of modern media is that it decreases the amount of public exposure to local media. A study by Hiba Shaheen on the “Egyptian Public and Viewing of Arab Satellite Channels” (136) showed that the studied sample were not keen on following local channels and were not satisfied with local television programs. Results also show that a third of the studied sample own decoders, which came with the launching of Egyptian satellites and the spread of Arab and foreign bouquets of channels, most prominent of which is Al-Awael and Showtime. The main reason for owning decoders is entertainment.

The effects of foreign and Arab satellite channels on Egyptians owning satellite dishes are apparent with regard to news. Arab satellite channels are sources of daily news, but when an extraordinary event occurs, viewers turn to foreign channels which surpass local media in such cases (newspaper, radios and television).

Mohammad Ibrahim’s Study on the “Use of Internet by the Egyptian Press and Its Impact on Journalistic Performance”(137) shows how limited the Egyptian journalistic web sites are. In 1999, only 10% of the total number of regular Egyptian newspapers had their own web sites. Additionally, the number of journalists using Internet is limited mainly to those working in the departments of foreign affairs, translation and technology. The study also showed newspaper’s limited range of use of Internet capabilities. It is regarded only as a publication means whereas and its interactive, promotional, marketing, and informational dimensions are no put into use. Moreover, electronic journalism is a poor competitor with traditional newspapers due to the small number of users and the absence of subscriptions and advertisement.

Najwa Abdel Salam’s study on the “Egyptian and Arab Electronic Journalism Experience” (138) points to the fact that Arab and Egyptian newspapers consider Internet as a means to republish their same content without benefiting from its capabilities (using the various available means, links to other sites, or the possibilities of advertisement) Moreover, electronic editions are delayed so as not to affect sale of traditional newspapers.

III. Evaluation of Modern Media on Political Conditions:

Every citizen now has the right to access information and the freedom to choose the media that suit him/her, compare different ones and analyze the information therein. Authorities are no longer capable of withholding information or controlling people’s choices of information sources. For example, the variety made available by Egyptian, Arab and foreign satellite channels and the Internet constitute a massive volume of information that does not pass through national authorities. Hiba Shaheen’s study on the “Egyptian Public and Viewing Arab Satellite Channels (139) shows that the surveyed sample bought satellite receivers to assure openness on the world, to learn about other cultures and to watch news not broadcast on Egyptian television. This shows the desire of the surveyed viewers to break from the chain imposed by the state on the media, whereby the government controlled the materials presented to the public (or what is called the guardians of the of the media gates). Their interest in news materials is reflected in their preference of MBC and Al-Jazeera, which have excellent news services. Arab channels are the preferred source of information in case of ordinary events, while foreign channels are watched in the case of extraordinary occurrences. The surveyed segment was also interested in political programs which present different points of view regarding a certain topic, most prominent among which are the programs called “Counter Opinion” and “More than One Opinion”. These are live broadcasts and receive telephone calls from viewers who may voice their opinions about the subject at hand.

The study carried out by Hanan Yousif on “Arab Issues as Presented on News of CNN and Euronews” (140) shows the continuing lack of balance in the news performance of both networks with regard to their presentation of Arab issues (especially CNN). In addition, the study showed that of the surveyed sample, the elite watched a great deal of CNN, Al-Jazeera, Euronews, MBC and BBC.

Internet’s role as a means of following news, especially in case of serious events, is becoming more apparent. It has the advantage of allowing access to information that has not been controlled by state censors. The researcher has noted the Egyptian users’ interest in accessing news by visiting various sites following the American attack on Afghanistan. They also participate in the opinion polls available on the Internet (which constitutes for Egyptian users a new type of interaction with important political events). Thus it is possible to make use of the immense capabilities of Internet in covering political and international events.

The results of the study carried out by this researcher on the “Egyptian Public and Viewing of Arab Satellite Channels” (141) underline the role of Internet as a primary source of information for the surveyed sample. Internet came fifth (at 42.4%) in the list of news sources used by the sample in ordinary events, after Arab satellite channels, foreign channels, Egyptian newspapers, magazines and television. Internet also came fifth in the list of sources resorted to by the surveyed sample in case of extraordinary events (at 15.8%), after foreign satellite channels, Arab channels, Egyptian television, Egyptian newspapers and magazines. It surpassed traditional sources of information such as Egyptian, Arab and foreign radios, and Arab and foreign newspapers. These results reflect the fact that the surveyed sample relied more on modern media than on traditional ones to follow news, whether ordinary or extraordinary.

Sami Taye’s study on “The Use of Internet in the Arab World” (142) shows that Internet is an important source of news for the majority of the sample he studied (91.5%) and that Egyptians are more concerned with finding information and news, whereas the surveyed individuals from the Arab Gulf were more interested in the entertainment aspects of Internet.

Governments also play a role in the use of Internet. The study by Shahinaz Basiouni on “Factors Affecting the Quality of Contents of the Web Site of the General Authority for Internet Information” (143) shows that most information on the site concern activities of government and its officials, in addition to some archived information that rely on newspapers affiliated to the government. The deficiency lies in the dominance of the official vision and the promotional presentation of information.

In spite of the great advantages of Internet, especially with regard to freedom of information, it should be stressed that freedom of information on the Internet does not always ensure reliability. Information, the source of which cannot always be tracked, may be inaccurate or misleading. Thus the credibility of this information is not established. Moreover, the information democracy allowed by the Internet is a mere democratic environment rather than a real democracy, because it is related to the amount of information provided by various bodies, institutions, individuals and networks (144).

IV. Evaluation of the Effects of Modern Media on Economic Conditions:

Modern media provides a massive opportunity to develop the economic sector. Satellite channels have a role in this by broadcasting economic bulletins on the latest developments in financial markets, currencies, important minerals, financial transactions, stock and bonds that may serve or arouse the interest of those concerned with economy. Satellite channels also prepare world economic reports like all other international news networks do. Additionally, investors use direct or indirect (sponsorship) advertising to increase their sales and promote their merchandise.

Investors subscribe in Internet to advertise their products, access information about competitors, carry out international commercial transactions and testing opportunities for investment in international markets. Internet also provides a great opportunity for economic institutions to advertise their products and carry out their transactions at minimum cost and maximum speed and efficiency.

Sami Taye’s study on the “Use of Internet in Advertising Campaigns” (145), carried out on a number of international companies which have their own web sites showed that internet is one of the communication means they use, that half of these companies use Internet for communication, that their use of email has increased on average, and that they use Internet to browse though information sites, disseminate information about their respective companies and learn about competitors’ activities and about new developments in the field of research.

V. Evaluation of the Effects of Modern Media on Religious Conditions:

The modern telecommunication technology has had its effect on religious media. The plurality and specialization of channels provided an opportunity for religious television satellite channels to appear. Arab Radio and Television (ART) established the first Arab Islamic channel called Iqra’ , which started to broadcast in late 1998. This channel presents a variety of programs on the various aspects of life to fulfill the needs of the modern Muslims, from a modern Islamic perspective. It aims to consolidate the moderate and liberal method of Islam, strengthening the sense of belonging to Islamic culture and presenting the real face of this religion. Lately, this channel replaced the ART open channel on the Egyptian Satellite to increase public exposure to the channel. In addition, Iqra’ can be viewed through several frequencies and other satellites as part of Al-Awa’el bouquet.

Satellite telecommunication technology also made available the Christian Channel SAT-7, which is a Lebanese Christian channel broadcasting in Arabic. It is not scrambled and can therefore be seen in the Arab world through the European satellite. It aims to fulfill the needs of Arab Christian viewers.

This researcher’s study on the “Egyptian Public and Viewing Arab Satellite Channels” (146) shows that the interest of surveyed Egyptians owning satellite receivers in religious programs comes fourth after news, news programs, movies and drama and song and variety programs. The study also showed Iqra’ to be the favorite religious channel for the same sample (29.33%). The program called “Religion and Life” broadcast on the Egyptian Satellite Channel came in second place in the total choice of best Arab satellite television programs. This program is hosted by Dr. Abdalla Shehata (professor in Al-Azhar University) who received enquiries from viewers and answers them according to the religion’s stipulations regarding social issues.

As far as Internet is concerned, a number of religious web sites have been established. These explain religion and its teachings, as well as events and positions related to them. Newspapers have pointed out that there has been a rush on Islamic web sites following the attack on the United States with a view to obtaining information on Islam.

Analysis of the Effects of New Media:

· The advent of new media in the Arab region with the Gulf War: CNN had a substantial role during that time and a number of Arab states, including Egypt, signed agreements with it to broadcast its programs in scrambled or unscrambled signals. This signaled the beginning of live broadcasts and open space in the Arab region.

· Political events on the Arab arena have affected the launching of the first Arab satellite channel. This was the Egyptian Satellite Channel which was established following Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait and Egypt’s participation in the liberation of Kuwait. Political factors also influenced various Arab countries in launching their own satellite channels with a view to accomplish their respective goals and promoting their causes.

· Egyptian media’s interaction with modern technological developments: Like developed countries, Egyptians invested in the satellite technology by establishing the group of specialized and general satellite channels as well as launching the two Egyptian satellites 101 and 102 that use the latest digital technology.

· The variety and continuous increase of satellite channels: The Egyptian satellite sector is the biggest Arab governmental sector of its kind in terms of number of channels and hours of broadcast. It represents a continuation of the distinguished role of Egyptian media.

· The advancement of telecommunication technology has affected an increase in the number of satellite dishes on rooftops, in addition to an increase in the channels available to those owning them. The number of Internet users has also increased, and it is expected to increase even more with the cancellation of subscription fees and limiting cost to that of a regular local telephone call.

· The trends toward specialization that fulfills the specific needs of a limited public: This was made possible by digital technology which enabled the establishment of the group of specialized channels (sports, news, family and child, varieties, drama, culture, education, health, etc.)

· The advent of Pay TV in Egypt with the establishment of the CNE Company which receives satellite channels and rebroadcast them to subscribers who pay for viewing them.

· The advent of private channels such as Al-Mehwar and Dream TV which constituted a revolution in audio visual media, following several decades of state monopoly of media.

· The rise in public exposure to satellite channels in general and specifically in the evenings and at night, and the variety of media contents presented by these channels each according to its orientation and types of viewers.

· Arab satellite channels are widely viewed by Egyptians and Arabs. 99.5% of the studied sample watch Arab satellite channels, which shows the importance of language to the public.

· Most of these channels are directed to the Arab public, in view of the fact that they all broadcast in Arabic. This exemplifies the size of the competition among them to attract viewers.

· Nile TV International is the only Egyptian and Arab channel broadcasting in foreign languages and targeting a non-Arab viewer. This also underlines the distinguished role of the Egyptian media.

· Means of accessing information for an Egyptian citizen vary between the traditional and the modern. The latter provides an opportunity to choose information sources and analyze and compare them without having the state determine what he/she should know.

· Traditional media such as newspapers and television stations have benefited from the modern media, by establishing web sites on the Internet that ensure easy interaction and fast access to information.

· New media have had a negative impact on the traditional one by decreasing the numbers of their original public that they are trying to keep in spite of strong competition.

· The many Egyptian general and specialized satellite channels have led to national production’s incapability to fill broadcasting hours with quality materials. Subsequently, channels fell in the trap of repetition and loss of individuality. They also resorted sometimes to broadcasting programs produced for the local channels, which at times does not serve the objectives of these channels. This is especially true in times of lack of financial capabilities.

· It should be noted that the general and specialized channels lack the necessary qualified cadres, in spite of their number and their assurance of Egyptian media superiority. The study carried out by this researcher on the “Egyptian Public and Viewing Arab Satellite Channels” shows that the specialized channels have achieved low ratings in comparison to other Arab channels. Egyptian studied sample rated Al-Jazeera as the best news channel, while Nile News came in ninth position among news channels. The reason for this, however, could be the comparatively young age of these channels and their use of the digital system, which may not have been available to some members of the surveyed sample at the time.

· Another loophole in these channels is their narrow margin of freedom, as is the case with all other Arab governmental channels. Some steps have been made, however, to improve news materials and to encourage the public to voice their opinions through live programs.

· In spite of the importance of new media in society, it creates an information gap between the affluent and the poor, especially in light of the low income average which is a barrier preventing many people from using new media.

· It is expected that international media owned by foreign bodies will enter the Arab broadcasting space. The experience of the Arabic service of BBC in cooperation with Orbit is still remembered.

· It is necessary to formulate a strategy that would ensure coordination and integration among Arab channels and evaluate their roles in fulfilling the needs of the Arab public.

· On the social level, new media has affected the young sectors of society using it. Politically, it provided users with alternatives with regard to accessing news, political viewpoints as well as the opportunities to participate in political debates in the event of extraordinary occurrences and to voice one’s opinion regarding important political happenings. With regard to media itself, new media affected ratings of traditional media both qualitatively and quantitatively. Economically, new media’s effects can be seen in the establishment of economic channels and programs. Furthermore, economic institutions now regard Internet as a promotional tool for their products and services and as a factor in economic activity. Religious media was also affected by new media. This is exemplified by the establishment of Arabic speaking Muslim and Christian satellite channels as well as by the many web sites that explain and promote religions on the Internet. Thus the role of new media is made clear by its effects on all sectors of society. This researcher expects that these effects will increase in the future, in light of the increasing public exposure to it, the continuous decrease of its costs and its multiple uses. The fact that has been proven by history is that all forms of media are mutually affective not negating. Media is also one of the most prominent factors affecting society and affected by it.

Translated by Lina Abu Nuwar.

The References of the Study

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2. Ibid. Pp 11-13.

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4. Labib, Sa’ad. Ibid. p. 26.

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7. Halawani Hussein, Maggie and Atef Obeid. Ibid, pp 487-522.

8. The Statistical Yearbook of the Union of Television and Radio: 1999-2000. Ibid, pp 81-98.

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12. Ibid. Pp 20,21.

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17. http://www.sataddress.com/df/Esc-Egyptian-Satellite-Channel.shtml

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19. Al shal, Inshirah. Ibid. P 24.

20. Obeid, Atef and Fawziyah al-ali. Ibid. Pp 23, 24

21. The Statistical Yearbook of the Union of Television and Radio: 1999-2000. Ibid. Pp 109.

22. Ibid. Pp 113.

23. Shaba’an, Sa’ad. Ibid. Pp 153.

24. The Statistical Yearbook of the Union Television and Radio: 1999-2000. Ibid. Pp 115.

25. Obeid, Atef and Fawziyah al-ali. Ibid. Pp 20, 21

26. Labib, Sa’ad. “Preliminary Thoughts on the Establishment of The Al-Ahram International Channel”. An un-published study. Cairo: 6^th October University, Media Faculty, 1997. Pp 15, 16.

27. For more information on the subject see:

The Egyptian Satellite Channels, Ibid. Pp 1,7

http://www.sataddress.com/df/esc-egyptian-satellite-channel.shtml

28. The Statistical Yearbook of the Union of Television and Radio: 1999-2000. Ibid. Pp 115.

29. Hussein, Amin. Egypt and the Arab World in the Satellite Age, Sinclair, John, Jacka, Elizabeth, Cunningham, Stuart. New Patterns in Global television, Peripheral Vision. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996. Pp 101-124.

30. Shukri, Abdel Majid. The Telecommunications Technology: The Production of Programs for Radio and Television. Cairo: Dar Al Fikr Al Arabi, 1996. Pp 22, 23.

31. The Statistical Yearbook of the Union of Television and Radio: 1999-2000. Ibid. Pp 115.

32. The Egyptian Satellite Channels. Ibid. P 3.

33. The Plan of the Union of Television and Radio: 1998-1999. Cairo: The Union of Television and Radio, Union Administration, The Central Planning Management, July 1998. P 194.

34. http://www.sataddress.com/df/esc-egyptian-satellite-channel.shtml

35. The Statistical Yearbook of the Union of Television and Radio: 1999-2000. Ibid. Pp 114.

36. Al Sharif, Sami. “The New Trends in the Field of Specialized Television Channels”. Un-published notes. Cairo: 6^th October University, Media Faculty, 1997. Pp 1-3.

37. Speech by Mr. Dr. Farouq Ismail the ex-Dean of the Cairo University in the Discussion Session on the Challenges Facing the Specialized Channels in Egypt. Cairo: Cairo University, Media Training, Documentation and Production Unit, 30 November 1998.

38 The speech by Dr. Safwat Al-Sharif, the Egyptian Minister of Information in the discussion session on the Challenges Facing the Specialized Channels in Egypt. Cairo: Cairo University, the Media Training, Documentation and Production Unit, 30 November 1998.

39. The Statistical Yearbook of the Union of Television and Radio: 1999-2000. Ibid. Pp 114.

40. The speech by Dr. Safwat Al-Sharif, the Egyptian Minister of Information in the discussion session on the Challenges Facing the Specialized Channels in Egypt. Cairo: Cairo University, the Media Training, Documentation and Production Unit, 30 November 1998.

41. The viewpoints of those who participated in the discussion session on the Challenges Facing the Specialized Channels in Egypt. Cairo: Cairo University, the Media Training, Documentation and Production Unit, 30 November 1998.

42. The Statistical Yearbook of the Union of Television and Radio: 1999-2000. Ibid. P 139.

43. “The Nile specialized Channels”. Cairo: The Union of Television and Radio, The Specialized Channels Sector, 1998. P 1.

44. The Statistical Yearbook of the Union of Television and Radio: 1996-1997. Ibid. P 142.

45. The Statistical Yearbook of the Union of Television and Radio: 1999-2000. Ibid. P 149.

46. The Information Plan of the Union of Television and Radio: 1998-1999, Ibid. Pp 201, 202.

.47. http://www.sataddress.com/df/esc-egyptian-satellite-channel.shtml

.48. The Annual Statistics Book of the Union of radio and Television 1999-2000. Ibid. Pp 149.

49. An Interview with Mrs. Afaf Tabaleh, the Director of the Nile Drama Channel, on December 5^th, 1998.

50. The Statistical Yearbook of the Union of Television and Radio: 1996-1997. Ibid. Pp 144-146.

51. The Statistical Yearbook of the Union of Television and Radio: 1999-2000. Ibid. Pp 149.

52. An Interview with Mrs. Najwa Ibrahim, the Director of the Nile Family and Child Channel, on December 5^th, 1998.

53. The Statistical Yearbook of the Union of Television and Radio: 1999-2000. Ibid. Pp 153.

54. The Nile Specialized Channels, Ibid, p 5.

55. http://www.sataddress.com/df/esc-egyptian-satellite-channel.shtml

56. The General Strategy of the Nile Family Channel: Unpublished Work Plan. Cairo: The Union of Television and Radio, Nile Family and Child Channel, 1998. Pp 1,2.

57. The Statistical Yearbook of the Union of Television and Radio: 1999-2000. . Ibid. Pp 151, 152.

58. An Interview with Mr. Hussameddine Farhat, the Director of the Nile Sports Channel on December 6^th, 1998.

59. The Statistical Yearbook of the Union of Television and Radio: 1999-2000. Ibid. P 150.

60. The Nile specialized Channels. Ibid. P 3

61. http://www.sataddress.com/df/esc-egyptian-satellite-channel.shtml

62. An Interview with Mr. Hussameddine Farhat, the Director of the Nile Sports Channel on December 6^th, 1998.

63. The Statistical Yearbook of the Union of Television and Radio: 1999-2000. Ibid. P 150.

64. An interview with Mrs. Salma Shama’a, the Director of the Nile Varieties Channel on December 6^th, 1998.

65. The Statistical Yearbook of the Union of Television and Radio: 1999-2000. Ibid. Pp 152, 153.

66. The Nile Specialized Channels. Ibid. P 7.

67. http://www.sataddress.com/df/esc-egyptian-satellite-channel.shtml

68. The Statistical Yearbook of the Union of Television and Radio: 1999-2000. Ibid. Pp 152, 153

69. An Interview with Mrs. Tahani Halawah, the Director of the Nile Educational Channel on December 6^th, 1998.

70. The Statistical Yearbook of the Union of Television and Radio: 1999-2000. Ibid. Pp 153, 154.

71. The Nile Specialized Channels. Ibid. P 9.

72. http://www.sataddress.com/df/esc-egyptian-satellite-channel.shtml

73. The Statistical Yearbook of the Union of Television and Radio: 1999-2000. Ibid. Pp 153.

74. An interview with Mr. Muheedine Ghamri, the Deputy Director of the Educational Channels on December 6^th, 1998.

75. An interview with Mrs. Sameeha Dahrouj, the Director of the Nile News Channel on December 14^th, 1998.

76. The Statistical Yearbook of the Union of Television and Radio: 1999-2000. Ibid. P144.

77. The Nile Specialized Channels. Ibid. Pp 2.

.78. http://www.sataddress.com/df/esc-egyptian-satellite-channel.shtml

79. The Statistical Yearbook of the Union of Television and Radio: 1999-2000. Ibid. Pp 144, 148.

80. An interview with Mr. Omar Anwar, the Programs Director in the Nile Cultural Channel on December 14^th, 1998.

81. The Statistical Yearbook of the Union of Television and Radio: 1999-2000. Ibid. P 151.

82. The Nile Specialized Channels. Ibid. Pp 6.

83. http://www.sataddress.com/df/esc-egyptian-satellite-channel.shtml

84. “The General Strategy of the Nile Cultural Channel: .An unpublished Work Plan”. Cairo: The Union of Television and Radio, 1998. Pp 1-9.

85. The Statistical Yearbook of the Union of Television and Radio: 1999-2000. Ibid. P 151.

86. An interview with Mrs. Suzanne Hasan, the Director of the Nile Scientific Research Channel on December 14^th, 1998.

87. The Statistical Yearbook of the Union of Television and Radio: 1999-2000. Ibid. P 155.

88. “The targets and Duties of the Satellite Scientific Research Channel and the Materials and Programs Necessary to Achieve Them: Un-published Work plan.” Cairo: The Ministry of State for Scientific Research, the Preparatory Committee for Scientific Research, 1998. Pp1-5.

89. Ibid. Pp 1-5.

90. An interview with Mrs. Mirvat Faraj, the Director of the Nile Higher Education Channel on December 14^th, 1998.

91. The Statistical Yearbook of the Union of Television and Radio: 1999-2000. Ibid. P 155.

92. Shaba’an, Sa’ad. Ibid. Pp 191,192.

93. http://www.nilesat.com.eg/about.htm

94. Shaba’an, Sa’ad. Ibid. Pp 191,192.

95. To know more about this subject, please see:

“The Egyptian Satellite Nile Sat begins its digital broadcast in the Middle East Region”. Cairo: The Egyptian satellite Company, 1998. P4

Shaba’an, Sa’ad. Ibid. Pp 330-240

96. http://www.nilesat.com.eg/about.htm

97. The General Information Authority, Nile Sat. Cairo: Ministry of Information, The General Information Authority, 1998. P 22.

98. Sha’aban, Sa’ad. Ibid. Pp 160-162.

99 The General Information Authority. Ibid. Pp 23.

100. Sha’aban, Sa’ad. Ibid. Pp 166.

101. Ibid. Pp 181.

102. The General Information Authority. Ibid. Pp 23,24.

103. “The Egyptian Satellite: A New Media Era”. The Screen and Microphone Bulletin, Issue #2. Cairo: Cairo University, Faculty of Information, 14 May 1998. Pp 1.

104. http://www.nilesat.com.eg/history.htm

105. The General Information Authority. Ibid. Pp 25,26.

106. Khattab, Mahmoud. “The Engineering Aspects of the Egyptian Satellite.” Conference on The Egyptian Satellite: A New Media Era. Cairo: Cairo University, Faculty of Information, 14^th May 1998.

107. The General Information Authority. Ibid. Pp 27,28.

108. Sha’aban, Sa’ad. Ibid. Pp 173,174.

109. To know more about the subject please see:

“The Egyptian Satellite NileSat Begins its Digital Broadcast in the Middle East Region”, Ibid. Pp 7.

http://www.nilesat.com.eg/specs.htm

110. The General Information Authority. Ibid. Pp 20,21.

111. Sha’aban, Sa’ad. Ibid. Pp 205,206.

112. Ibid. Pp 200,201.

113. http://www.nilesat.com.eg/specs.htm

114. The General Information Authority. Ibid. Pp 21,22.

115. Ibid. Pp 28,29.

116. “The Egyptian Satellite NileSat Begins Its Digital Broadcast in the Middle East Region”, Ibid. Pp 9, 10.

117. http://www.nilesat.com.eg/specs.htm

118. The General Information Authority. Ibid. p 30.

119. http://www.nilesat.com.eg/history.htm

120. “Nile Sat, 102 Steps Along the Way”. The Art of Radio Magazine. Issue #161. Cairo: The union of Television and Radio, The Institute of Radio and Television, September 2000. pp 23-26.

121. Ibid. Pp 23-26.

122. To know more about this subject please see:

Al Ahram Newspaper. 13^th June 2001. Pp 15.

Al Ahram Newspaper. 14^th June 2001. Pp 1.

123. “The Central Authority for National Mobilization and Statistics: An Estimate Number of Families Owning Satellite Dishes and Television Sets”. Cairo: The Central System for National Mobilization and Statistics, the General Census 1996.

124. The Egyptian Al-Waqa’e’ Newspaper, Issue #25. Cairo: 29^th January 1991. Pp 3-13.

125. Qulaini, Suzan. “Egyptian Media and Information: Establishment and Development. Cairo: Ein Shams University, Faculty of Arts, 2001. Pp 154,155.

126. Shukri, Abdel Majid. Ibid. P 36.

127. Ellsworth, Jill. Baron, Billy, et al. The Internet 1997 Unleashed, 4^th edition. USA: Sam net publishing, 1997. Pp 833-853.

128. Mann, Billy. Government and the Internet. Ibid. Pp 913-922

129. Breedlove, Bob. From the Past to the Present. Ibid. Pp 3-20.

130. Qulaini, Suzan. Ibid. Pp 195-215.

131. Qulaini, Suzan. “The Effects of Watching Satellite Television on Social Trends Among Egyptian Youth. The Humanitarian Sciences and Arts Magazines. Al Minia University, Faculty of Arts, Vol. 25, July 1997. Pp.71-144

132. ‘Elewa, Hanan. “The Role of the Arab Satellite Stations in Changing Types of Social Behavior in a Sample of the Egyptian Public: An Analytical Field Study.” Unpublished Doctorate dissertation. Zaqazeeq: Zaqazeeq University, Faculty of Arts, 1998.

133. Al Ahram Newspaper. 30 January 2002. P 2.

134. Abdel Salam, Najwa. “The Trends and Motives Behind Internet Use Among the Egyptian Youth, Investigative Study”. The 4^th Scientific Conference at the Media Faculty. Cairo: Cairo University, Faculty of Information, 25-27 May 1998.

135. Bakheet, Al-Sayed. “The Types and Habits of Internet Use by University Professors”. A field study on users of Egyptian universities Network, the 3^rd Scientific Conference of the Faculty of Information. Cairo: Cairo University, Faculty of Information, 25-27 May 1997.

136. Shaheen, Hiba. “The Egyptian Public and Viewing Arab Satellite Channels: An Analytical Field Study”. Unpublished Doctorate dissertation. Cairo: Cairo University, Faculty of Information, 2001.

137. Ibrahim, Mohammad. “The Use of the Internet by the Egyptian Press and its Impact on Journalistic Performance”. The 5^th Scientific Conference of the Media Faculty. Cairo University, Faculty of Information, 1999.

138. Abdel Salam, Najwa. “The Egyptian and Arab Electronic Journalism Experience: Reality and Future Prospects”. The Egyptian Magazine for Media Research, Issue #4. Cairo: Cairo University, Faculty of Information, 1998.

139. Shaheen, Hiba. Ibid. Pp 408-414.

140. Youssef, Hanan. “Arab Issues as Presented in the News of CNN and Euronews: a Comparative Study”. An unpublished Doctorate Dissertation. Cairo: Cairo University, Faculty of Arts, 2001.

141. Shaheen, Hiba. Ibid. Pp 408-414.

142. Taye’, Sami. “Use of Internet in the Arab World: A Field Study on a Sample of the Egyptian Youth”. The Egyptian Magazine for Public Opinion Research, Issue #4. Cairo: Cairo University, Media Faculty. December 2000.

143. Basyouni, Shahinaz. “ Factors Affecting the Quality of Contents of the Website of the General Authority for Internet Information”. The Faculty of Arts Magazine, Issue #20. University of Zaqazeeq, Faculty of arts, April 1998.

144. Qulaini, Suzan. “Egyptian Media and Information: Establishment and Development”. Ibid. Pp 214, 215.

145. Taye’h, Sami. The Use of Internet in Advertising Campaigns: A Field Study on a Sample of Egyptian Youth. The Egyptian Magazine for Public Opinion Research, Issue #2. Cairo: Cairo University, Media Faculty. April 1997.

146. Shaheen, Hiba. Ibid. Pp 252-318.

(Translated By Lina Abu Nuwar)

Prepared by: Dr. Hiba Ameen Shaheen

I. The Development of Radio Transmission in Egypt

II. The Development of Television Broadcasting in Egypt

I. Sector of Satellite Channels

Egyptian Satellite Channel One:

a.

Promoting Arab issues and the Arab, regional and Egyptian point of view as regards to international events.

Egyptian Satellite Channel Two

Table no. 3

Distribution of Broadcasted Programs by Type

Type of Program

II. Sector of Specialized Channels

Nile Family and Child Channel

Nile Varieties Channel

Nile Educational Channels

Nile Culture Channel

AL-Manara Channel for Scientific Research

Nile Higher Education Channel

Table no. 14

Satellite’s identifying number

5. Investments in the Satellite